HOODS HOLE
OCEANOGRAPH1C INSTITUTION

-I

* ' ^

a s. c ot 3r f ■§ ec,a«V $

UYV

2^

<yjtf<rh.*r k

UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS.

' VOYAGE

OF THE

U. S. EXPLORING SQUADRON,

COMMANDED BY

CAPTAIN CHARLES WILKES,

OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY,

IN 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, AND 1842:

TOGETHER WITH

EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES MADE BY

ADMIRAL D'URVILLE, CAPTAIN ROSS,

AND OTHER NAVIGATORS AND TRAVELLERS;
A.\D AN

ACCOUNT OF THE EXPEDITION TO THE DEAD SEA,

UNDER LIEUTENANT LYNCH.

BY JOHN S. JENKINS,

AUTHOR OF "TIIK LIFE OF SILAS WRIGHT," ''POLITICAL HISTORY OF NEW YORK,"
"HISTORY' OF THE WAR WITH MEXICO," ETC., ETC.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

DETROIT :

KERR, DOUGHTY & LAPHAM.

1853.

MARTffv J prw , A

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year ir50.

B V JAM ES M. A LDEN,

tn the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern .

New York.

8TE**OT»rED BY T. B. SMITII
2«l WmtUM STREET.

PREFACE.

It has been my main object, in the preparation o( this
work, to present, in an attractive and condensed form, an
account of the various Expeditions mentioned in its pages,
with such other information touching the places and localities
described, as might be of interest to the general reader ; and
if the public approve of the design, additions will hereafter
be made to it, treating of similar enterprises undertaken by
the American government.

So far, however, from being an abridgment of the published
narratives of Messrs. Wilkes and Lynch, this volume will be
found to contain a very large proportion of facts not embraced
in either of them. These have been obtained from divers
sources. While engaged in preparing the work, I have
consulted the Voyages of D'Urville, Ross, Beechey, King
and Fitzroy ; Ellis 1 Polynesian Researches ; Crawfurd's
Indian Archipelago ; Darwin's Journal of Researches ; Wil-
liams' Missionary Enterprises ; Kidder's Sketches of Resi-
dence and Travels in Brazil ; Bingham's Sandwich Islands ;
Mrs. Meredith's Sketches of New South Wales; Earl's
Enterprise in Tropical Australia ; Greenhow's History of
Oregon and California ; the travels of Hall, Mier, Moeren-
hout, Clarke, Elliott, Stephens, Robinson, and Fisk ; and a

VI PREFACE.

number of other books of voyages and travels, some or all
of which are referred to in the notes. It would be unjust,
too, not to acknowledge, in this connection, my indebtedness
to the official narratives of Commanders Wilkes and Lynch.
I have, as a matter of course, been essentially benefited by
them, though I have found that of the former encumbered
with frequent errors. Something may, indeed, be conceded
to haste in preparing a work for the press; but it is hardly
excusable that any writer- should be so far wrong in his
geography as to confound San Salvador with Rio Janeiro, or
so much at fault as to mistake a Peruvian montana for a
forest.

It would have been easy for me to have swelled the size
of the Second Part of the book, by inserting the stereotyped
gleanings of almost every modern traveller who has visited
the Holy Land, which have, from continued repetition,
become familiar to every reader ; but I could not find any
justification for taking that course. The important results,
and the actual information, obtained by the Dead Sea
Expedition, may be reduced within a very narrow compass;
and the account of it seemed to me appropriately to terminate
with the breaking up of the Encampment on the shores of
the lake.

Anachronisms of frequent occurrence may be found in
these pages ; but as my desire has been to impart informa-
tion, they have appeared to me to be justifiable. The Expe-
ditions of Wilkes and Lynch have been, as it were, the
threads upon which I have strung the facts procured from
different sources, many of which are not accessible to the
majority of readers, or, if accessible, few have the leisure to
examine them. Many of these facts relate to periods long
subsequent to the date of the T-Lxpeditions with which they

PREFACE. Vfl

are connected, but no one can be misled by this arrangement ;
and if the reader is as much profited by the perusal of this
work, as I have been by the examinations necessary to its
prspration, he will not, I am confident, be inclined to doubt
that l have rendered him an acceptable service.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

Early Maritime Discoveries, 25. Indebtedness of America, 26. Act of
Congress authorizing Expedition to the South Seas, 26. Organization
of the Expedition, 26, 27. Departure from Norfolk, 27. Instructions
of the Secretary of the Navy, 28, 29. Orders of the Commander of the
Expedition, 29, 30. The Gulf Stream and Currents, 30. Western
Islands, 31. Approach to Madeira, 31. Beautiful Scenery, 32. Arri-
val at Funchal, 32. Appearance of the Town, 33. Other Towns on
the Island, 33. The Interior; Rich Vegetation, 34. Mode of Travel-
ling, 34. Population and Products, 35. Manufacture of Wine, 35, 36.
Sailing of the Squadron, 36. The Cape de Verdes, 37. Productions
and Exports, 37, 38. Houses, 38. Style of Dress, 39. St. Jago and
Porto Praya, 39, 40. Route to Rio Janeiro, 40.

CHAPTER II.

Appearance of the City of Rio Janeiro from the Sea, 41. Imperial Pal-
ace, Chapel, and other Public Buildings, 42. Celebration of the Em-
peror's Birth-day, 42, 43. Churches in Rio, 43. Dwelling-houses and
Streets, 44. Fountains, 45. Population of the City, 45. Condition
of the Society, 45, 46. Fondness for Ornaments and Display, 46.
Funerals, 46, 47. Amusements, 47. Slaves and Slavery, 47, 48.
Beauty of the Suburbs and Environs, 48, 49. Discovery of Brazil, 49.
History and Form of Government, 49, 50. Greatness of the Brazilian
Empire, 50. Magnificent Flora, 50, 51. Rich Cabinet and Dye Woods,
51. Cacao, Mango, and Agave, 51. Other Plants and Shrubs, 51.
Indigo Plant, and Manufacture of Indigo, 51, 52. Coffee Shrub ; Mode
of Preparing the Berry for Market, 52. Other Products, 52. Markets
in Brazilian Towns, 53. Parasites and Creepers in the Forests, 53.

1#

CONTENTS.

Birds and Animals, 53. Wild Horses and Cattle of the Pampas, 53, 54.
Gold Mines, 54. Diamond Washings, 55. Other Mineral Products,
56. Commerce of Brazil, 56. Caoutchouc, 56. Most Important Pro-
ducts of the Southern Provinces, 56, 57. Importance of the Brazilian
Trade to the United States, 57. Departure of the Expedition, 57.

CHAPTER III.

Pamperos off the Coast of La Plata, 58. The Rio Negro ; Barrenness of
the Adjacent Country, 5S. Pampas of the Interior, 58, 59. The Gua-
chos; their Costume and Appearance, 59. Settlement at El Carmen,
69, 60. Early History of Buenos Ayres, 60. Its Population and Cap-
ital, 60, 61. Other Important Towns, 61. Climate, 61. Vegetable
Products, 61. Horses, Mules, and Cattle, 61. Mines, 61. Lagunas de
Salinas, 61, 62. Matte 62. Zoology, 62. Native Population, 62.
Weapons of the Indian Tribes, 62, 63. Alarm at El Carmen, 63. Ap-
proach to the Southern Extremity of the Continent, 63. Dreary Ap-
pearance of Tierra del Fuego, 63, 64. Straits of Magellan, 64. Straits
of Le Make, 64. Doubling Cape Horn, 64, 65. Geographical Position
of the Cape, 65. Arrival of the Squadron at Orange Harbor, 66.

CHAPTER IV.

Voyage of the Relief, 67. Discovery of Patagonia, 67. Geographical
Description, 68. Mineral Formations, 68. Patagonian Indians, 68, 69.
Dress, Appearance, and Mode of Life, 69. Use of the Bolas, 69, 70.
Interviews with the Natives, 70, 71. Orange Harbor, 71. Visits from
the Fuegians, 71, 72. Description of Tierra del Fuego, 72. Principal
Trees, 72. W Bark, 72. Geology, 72, 73. Mountain Scenery,

73. Animals and Birds, 73. The Fuegians, Physiognomy, Dress, and
Mode of Life, 73, 74. Wigwams and Canoes, 74. Supei .74,

75. Arms and "Weapons, 75. Southern Cruise, 75, 76. I. .76.

Vain Attempt to Penetrate beyond former Navigators, 76. Beautiful
Luciform Appearances, 76, 77. Return to Orange Harbor, 77. The
Pacific Ocean, 77. Arrival at Valparaiso, 77. Loss of the Sea Gull,
78.

CHAPTER V

Splendid View of the Andes on approaching the Chilian Coast, 79, 80.

Country around Valparaiso, 80. View of the Town, 80, 81. The Har-

CONTENTS. XI

bor, 81. Fortifications, 81, 82. Facilities for Landing, 82. Choloes,
82. Custom-house and Exchange, 82, 83. Other Public Buildings, 83.
Chingano and Samacueca, 83. City Prisons, 83. Taverns, 83, 84.
Efficiency of the Police,. 84. Population of the City, 84. Mercantile
Character, 84, 85. Old Spanish Residents, 85. State of Morals, 85.
Cemeteries, 86. Historical Notices of Chili, 86. Revolution, and Es-
tablishment of Independence, 86, 87. Changes in the Government, 87,
88. Administration of Prieto, 88. Diego Portales, 88. Beneficent
Legislation, 88. Improvement in the Finances, 88. Form of Govern-
ment of Chili, 89. General Prosperity of the Country, 89. Boundaries
of the Republic, 89, 90. Peonage, 90. Management of the Large Es-
tates, 90. War with Peru, 90, 91. Defeat and Banishment of Santa
Cruz, 91, 92. Santiago, 92. Imposing Appearance, 92. Public Prom-
enades, 93. Cleanliness and Salubrity of the City, 93. Public Edifices,
93, 94. The Palace, 94. Cathedral and Parish Churches, 94. The
Mint, 94. College and Public Library, 94, 95. Private Dwellings, 95.
Markets, 95. Fine Horses, 95, 96. Amusements and Recreations, 96.
Attachment to Religious Forms, 96. The Oracion, 96. Fashions, 96,
97. Population of Santiago, 97. Coquimbo, 97. Huasco, 97. Con-
cepcion, 97. Valdivia, 97, 98. Dress of the Chilenos, 98. Traits of
Character, 98. Dwelling-houses, 99. Indian Population, 99. The
Cordilleras, and Intermediate Valleys, 99, 100. Climate of Chili, 100.
Rivers, 100. Geology, 100. Fertility of the Soil, 100, 101. Chilian
Forests, 101. Productions, 101, 102. Agriculture, and Implements of
Husbandry, 102. Cattle-breeding, 102. Wild Animals, 102. Birds,
103. Commerce, 103, 104. Internal Trade, 104. Mode of Travelling
and Carrying Burdens, 104, 105. Manufactures, 105. Mineral Wealth,
105, 106. Copper Mines in Coquimbo and Jajuel, 109. Mining Sys-
tem, 106, 107. Departure from Valparaiso, 107.

CHAPTER VI.

Island of San Lorenzo, 108. Harbor and Town of Callao, 109, 110.
Road to the Capital, 111. Lima, 112. Situation of the City, 112. Its
Streets, 113. Beauty of its Public Edifices, 113. The Plaza Mayor
and Fountain, 113, 114. Government Palace, Cabildo, and Cathedral,
114. Churches and Convents, 115. Monastic Establishments, Hospi-
tals, and Asylums-, 116. Palace of the Inquisition, 116. University, 117.
Mint, National Library, and Theatre, 117. City Wall, 117. Spanish
Colonization, 118. Fortifications 119. Private Houses, 119, 120.
Pantcon, 120. Population of Lima, 121. Other Principal Towns in
Peru, 121. Cuzco, 122. Arequ r na, 122. Cerro di Pasco, 123. Gua-
munga, 123. Huaeho, 123. Huanc iv-liea, 124. Truxillo, 124. Early

Xli CONTENTS.

History of Peru, 124. War of Independence, 125. Dictatorship of
Bolivar, 125. Revolt of the Peruvian Patriots, 125. Civil Dissensions,
126. Protectorate of Santa Cruz, 126. Present Administration, 127.
Population of Peru, 127. The White Creoles, 127. Peruvian Ladies,
128. Mixed Races, 129. Influence of Catholicism, 130. Style o*
Dress, 131. Saya y Manto, 131. Popular Amusements, 132. Aman-
caes Fete, 132. Intoxicating Drinks and Stimulants, 133. Houses of
the Peruvians in the Interior, 133. Beasts of Burden, 133. Mode of
Travelling, 133. Topography of Peru, 133, 134. Character of the
Soil, 134. Harbors, 134. Rivers and Lakes, 135. Climate, 135. Dis-
eases, 136. Earthquakes, 136. Mineral Wealth, 136. Silver Mines
at Cerro di Pasco, 137. Mode of Working, 137. Other Mining Dis-
tricts, 138. Agriculture, 138. Implements of Husbandry, 139. Pro-
ducts of the Coast, 139. Cotton, Maize, and Sugar Cane, 140. The
High Lying Districts, 141. Aracacha, Yucca, and other Productions,
141. The Olive Tree, 142. Castor Oil Plant, 142. Plants of the
Sierra, 142. Quinua and Ulhlco, 142. Lucern, 143. Fruits, 143, 144.
The Chirimoya, 144. Peruvian Bark, 145. Balsam of Peru, 146.
Tonga, 146. Ratanhia, 146. Flora of Peru, 146. Commerce, 147.
Exports and Imports, 147. Roads, 147, 148. Manufactures, 148.
Birds, 149. The Condor, 149. Wild Animals, 150. The Llama, 150.
Alpaca and Guanaco, 151. The Vicuna, 152. Domestic Quadrupeds,
153. Fine Horses and Mules, 153. Sailing of the Squadron, 154.

CHAPTER VII.

The Paumotu Group, 155. Clermont de Tonnerre, 156. Unfriendliness
of the Natives, 156. Mode of Surveying the Islands, 156. Other
Islands of the Group, 157. Movements of the Squadron, 158. Boring
on Aratica Island, 158. The Lngoons, 159. Geology, 159. Different
Theories, 160. Botany, 161. Birds and Animals, 162. Population
162. Physical Character of the Inhabitants, 163. Dress and Customs.
163, 164. Mode of Constructing Habitations, 164. Canoes, 165.

CHAPTER VIII.

View of Tahiti from the Sea, 166. Society Islands, 167. Discovery an*.
Description of the Group, 167, 168. Rivers, 168. Harbors, 169. Pa
pieti and Matavai, 170. Taloo, 171. Establishment of Missions, 171.
Adoption of a Form of Government, 171. Features of the Constitution,

CONTENTS. Xlll

171, 172. Queen Pomare, 172. The King Consort, 172. Caricature
of Royalty, 173. Tahitian Politics, 173. Police Regulations, 174.
Character of the Natives, 174. Former State of Degradation, 174.
Change Produced by the Missionaries, 175. Influence of the Climate
on the Feelings and Disposition, 175, 176. Personal Traits and Char-
acteristics, 176. Appearance, Customs, and Language, 177. Style of
Dress, 178, 179. Lcrve of Flowers, 179. Productions, 180. Otaheitan
Cane, 181. Rich Fruits, 181. Wild Banana, 182. Guava and Cocoa,

182. Mode of Climbing the Cocoa-nut Tree, 182. The Bread-Fruit,

183. Mahi, 184. Diet, and Mode of Living, 184. Zoology, 184, 185.
The Queen's Palace, 185. Native Dwellings, 185, 186. Furniture,
186. Commercial Resources, 186. Vessels and Canoes, 187. Inter-
nal Traffic, 187. Manufactured Products, 188. Mode of Extracting
the Oil of the Cocoa-nut, 188. Arrow Root, 188. Beating Tapa, 188,
189. General Influence of the Missionaries, 189. Errors Committed
189, 190.

CHAPTEK IX.

Arrival of the Squadron at Tahiti, 191. Friendly Reception, 191. Voy-
age to the Sainoan Group, 192. Geographical Description, 192.
Manuii, 192. Tutuila, 193. Upolu, 193. Beautiful Scenery, 194.
Manono and Apolima, 194. Savaii, 195. Streams and Lakes, 195.
Formation of the Islands, 195, 196. Climate, 196. Harbor of Pago-
Pago, 196. Apia, 197. Other Ports, 197. Population of the Group,
198. Personal Appearance of the Natives, 198. Treatment of Women,
198, 199. Chastity, 199. Traits and Characteristics, 199, 200. Habit
of Bathing, 200. The "Devil's Men," 201. Heathen Women, 201.
People of Savaii, 201. Fondness for Traffic, 201. Diseases, 202.
Language, 202. The Maro, 202. Titi, and other Articles of Dress,

203. Ornaments, 203. Tattooing, 203, 204. Mode of Wearing the
Hair, 204. Occupations and Amusements, 204. Lascivious Dances,

204, 205. Musical Instruments, 205. Games, 205. Marriages, 206.
Births and Burials, 206. Manner of Cooking Food, 206. Disgusting
Mode of Preparing Ava, 206, 207. Government, 207. State of Soci-
ety, 207. Crimes and Punishments, 207, 208. Heathen Deities, 208.
Successful Labors of the Missionaries, 208, 209. Manner of Erecting
Houses, 209, 210. Arrangements in the Interior, 210. Culinary Uten-
sils, 210. Native Lamp, 210. Commerce, 211. Articles adapted for
Exportation, 211 Mechanical Skill, 211. Tapa and Mulberry Cloth,
211,212. Canoes,212. Animal Kingdom, 212, 213. Mode of Taking
Fish, 213. Cultivated Trees and Plants, 213. Ti-root Sugar, 213, 214.
Yam and Taro, 214. Beauty of the Forests, 214. Tamanu and Amai,

XIV CONTENTS.

214. Tou, Toi, and Toa, 215. Manufacture of Pitch from the Bread
Fruit, 215. Candle Nut Tree, 215, 216. Surveys of the Squadron
216. Native Fono, 216. Departure from the Samoiin Group, and Ar-
rival at Sydney, 217.

CHAPTER X.

New Holland, or Australia, 218. Position of the Continent, 218. Firsl
Discovery, 219. Subsequent Explorations, 219, 220. Geographical
Features, 220. Mountain Ranges, 221, 222. Interior of the Country
222, 223. Geological Formation, 223. The Uplands, 224. Theory
of Formation, 225. Harbors, 225. Port Jackson, 226. Rivers, 226.
The Hawkesbury, 227. The Murray and its Tributaries, 228, 229.
Lakes, 229. Character of the Country in respect of Fertility, 230.
Soil, 230. Geology and Mineral Substances, 230, 231. Climate, 231,
232. Tropical Australia, 232. Wet and Dry Seasons, 233. Atmos-
pheric Phenomena, 233. Diseases, 234. Peculiarities in the Vegetable
Kingdom, 234, 235. General Arrangement of Plants, 235, 236: Cere-
alia, Native Grasses, and Fruits, 236. Other Productions, 237. Cotton,
Coffee, and other Tropical Plants, 238. Forest Scenery, 238, 239.
Timber Trees, 239. Eucalypti, 239, 240. Medicinal Trees, 240. Im-
pressions on the Mind of a Stranger, 240, 241. State of Agriculture
and Horticulture, 241. Animal Existence, 241, 242. Birds, 242, 213.
Cassowary, 212. Black Swan, 243. Mammalia, 213. Marsupialia,
•J 13, 2 1 !. Kangaroo, 244. Other Genera, 2 1 1, 245. Omithorhynchuss
2 1.3, 246. Rodentia, 246. Domestic Animals, 2 16, 2 17. Reptiles and
Fish, 247. Insects, 248. Personal Appearance of the Aborigines, 248,
249. Character, 249, 250. Native Huts and Weapons, 250. Boo-
mereng, 251. Canoes, 251. Mode of Living, 251. Ideas of Gov-
ernment, 252. Customs, 252. " Making Young Men," 252, 253.
Amusements, 253. Burying the Dead, 253. Superstitions, 253, 254,
255. Poetic Idea in Regard to Sleep, 255. First Colonization of Aus-
tralia, 255. Embarrassments and Changes in the Government, 256.
Cost of Establishing Colony of New South Wales, 257. Encourage-
ment of Immigration, 257, 258. Speculation in Wild Lands, 258.
tbordinate Penal Colonies, 258. Other Settlements by Voluntary
Immigrants, 258, 259. West Australia, 258. South Australia, 2
Port Phillip, 259. North Australia, 259, 260. Population of Australia,
260. Government, 260, 261. The Judiciary, 261. dolonial Life, 261,
262. Different Classes of Society, 262. Amusements and Fashions.
2G2. Schools, Colleges, and Literary and Benevolenl Societies, 263.
le of Building, I. Condition of the Convicts. 264. Their

Treatment, 2G-(, 2C5. Di c n linuance of Xew South Wales as a Penal

CONTENTS. TV

Colony, 265. Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, 265, 266. Geology,
266. Manner of Selling Lands in the Colony, 267. Climate, 267.
Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, 267, 268. Harbors, Rivers, and
Lakes, 268. Government, 269. Aboriginal Race, 269. Hobarton,
269, 270. Launceston, 270. Sydney, 270, 271. The Public Building*
and Institutions, 271, 272. Paramatta, and Woolongong, 272, 273
Adelaide and other Towns, 273. Commerce of the Australian Colonies
273, 274. Manufactures, 274. Saltworks, 274.

CHAPTER XL

Departure of the Squadron from Sydney, 275. Antarctic Expedition, 276
Macquarrie Island, 277. Land supposed to Exist near the Antarctic
Circle, 277, 278. Deceptive Appearances, 278. Actual Discovery of
Land, 279. Antarctic Continent, 279. Return to Sydney, 280. Dis
coveries of Biscoe and Balleny, 280, 281. French Expedition under M.
d'Urville, 281, 282. Expedition under Captain Ross, 282. Discovery
of Land, 283. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, 283, 284. Icy Bar-
rier, 284. Subsequent Voyages, 284, 285. Expedition under Lieuten-
ant Moore, 285. Results of the Different Expeditions, 285. The
Whale Fishery, 285. Magnetic Observations, 285, 286. Geology of
the Antarctic Continent, 286. Belt of Ice, 286. The Icebergs, 286,
287. Splendid Exhibitions of the Aurora Australis, 287. Last Traces
of Vegetation, 287, 288. Animal Kingdom, 288. Sea-Lion, and Sea-
Elephant, 288. " Killer," 288, 289. Wild Fowl, 289. Rendezvous of
the Squadron in the Bay of Islands, 289.

CHAPTER XII.

Acquisitions of England, 290. New Zealand, 291. Discovery, 291. De-
scription of the Islands, 291, 292. Formation of the Country, 292.
Rivers and Streams, 292, 293. Harbors, 293, 294. Bay of Islands,
293, 294. Towns, 294, 295. Volcanic Phenomena, 295. Hot Springs,
295. Minerals, 295, 296. Soil, 296. Climate and Diseases, 296, 297.
Population, 297. Abandoned Character of the Inhabitants, 297. Oc-
cupation by Great Britain, 297, 298. Improvement in the State of
Society, 298. Government, 298, 299. Native New Zealanders, 299.
Their Character and Customs, 300. Ornaments, 300, 301. Influence
Exerted by the Missionaries, 301. Mechanical Skill of the Natives, 301,
302. Amusements, 302. Power of the Chiefs in Former Times, 302,

XVI CONTENTS.

303. Fortified Towns, or Pas, 303. Native Habitations, 303, 304.
Furniture, 304. Dress, 304. Diet, 304, 305. Taboo, 305. Funeral
Ceremonies, 305. Botany of the Islands, 305, 306. Pine Timber, 306.
Fern and Flax, 306. New Zealand Spinach, 306, 307. Agriculture,
307. Foreign Products, 307. Animals and Birds, 308. Exports and
Imports, 309. Canoes, 309. Manufactures, 309, 310. Sailing of the
Squadron, and Arrival in the Tonga Islands, 310.

CHAPTER XIII.

Discovery of the Tonga Group, 311. Description of the Islands, 311, 312.
Physical Geography, 312. Climate, 312, 313. Fertility of Tonga, 313.
Productions of the Group, 313, 314. Culture of the Soil, 314. Popu-
lation, 314. Personal Appearance of the Tongese, 314, 315. Beauti-
ful Women, 314, 315. Cleanly Habits, 315. Character, 315. Dress,
315, 316. Native Warriors, 316. Occupations, 316, 317. Birds and
Animals, 317. Fondness for Tobacco and Ava, 317. Singing, 317,
318. Government, 318. Ancient Religion, 318. Divinities, 318, 319.
Island of Bulotu, 319, 320. Dwellings, 320. Articles of Furniture,
320, 321. Beautiful Mats, 320, 321. Nukualofa, 322. Manner of
Fortifying their Towns, 322. Expertness as Seamen, 322. Canoes,
322, 323. Mode of Sculling, 323. Missionaries, 323. War between
the Christians and the " Devil's Party," 323, 324. Defeat of the For-
mer, 324. Sailing of the Squadron for the Feejee Group, 324.

CHAPTER XIV.

Bad Character of the Feejee Group, 325. Discovery and Geographical
Description of the Islands, 326. Important Members of the Group,
327. Eastern Islands, 327. Vanua-levui, 327. Viti-levui, 328. Ovo-
lau and Malolo, 328. Assua. Group, 329. Rivers and Streams, 329.
Harbors and Towns, 329, 330. Levuka, 329. Savu-Savu and its Hot
Springs, 329, 330. Ambau and Rewa, 330, 331. Sawau, 331. Somu-
Somu, 332. Evidences «of the Volcanic Origin of the Islands, 333
Geological Formations, 333, 334. Richness «f the Soil, 334. Climate,
334, 335. Diseases, 335. Productions, 335, 336. Preservation of
Bread-Fruit, 335, 336. Fruit and Timber Trees, 336. Paper Mulberry
and Tapa, 336. Mangrove, 336, 337. Edible Roots, 337 Cotton
Plant and Tree, 337. Acclimated Fruits and Vegetables, 337. Flow-
ering Plants and Shrubs, 337,338. Agriculture, 338. Labor performed

CONTENTS. XVII

by the Women, 338. Zoology, 339. Whales and Turtles, 339. Modes
of Taking Fish, 339. Biche tie Mer, 339, 340. Birds, 340. Physi-
ognomy of the Feejeean, 340, 341. Appearance of the Women, 341.
Mode of Wearing the Hair, 341, 342. Character of the Natives, 341,
342. Cannibal Propensities, 343. Wars between the Tribes, 343.
Manner of Suing for Mercy, 343, 344. Contrast between the Charac-
ter of the Feejeeans, and the Scenery and Climate of the Islands, 344.
A Field for the Missionary, 344, 345. Population of the Group, 345.
Government, 345. Dress of the Natives, 345, 346. Attention paid to
the Toilet, 346, 347. Tattooing and Circumcision, 347. Mode of Sit-
ting, 347. Food, and its Preparation, 347. Pottery, 347, 348. Manner
of Serving up Food, 348. Ava-Drinking, 348. Amusements, 348, 349.
Language, 349. Polygamy and Marriage, 349. Putting to Death the
Old and Infirm, 349. Treatment of Women, 349. Divinities, 349, 350.
Traditions and Superstitions, 349, 350. Ambali, or Priests, 350. Mbures,
or Spirit-Houses, 351. Fortified Koros, 351. Furniture in the Native
Houses, 351. Canoes, 351, 352. Mechanical Ingenuity, 352. Tools,
352. Articles of Commerce-, 352, 353. Capture of Vendovi, 353.
Burning of Tye and Sualib, 353. Murder of Lieutenant Underwood
and Midshipman Henry, 354, 355. Chastisement of the Natives, 355.
Departure from the Group, 356.

CHAPTER XV.

Position and Destiny of the Sandwich Islands, 357, 358. Geographical
Description, 358, 359, 360. Hawaii, 358. Maui, 359. Lauai and
Kahoolawe, 359. Molokai, 359. Oahu, 359, 360. Kauai and Niihai%

360. General Character of the Scenery, 360,361. Rivers and Streams,

361. Geology, 361. Volcanoes, 361, 362. Burning Crater of Kilanea,

362. 363. Population, 363, 364. Causes of the Diminution, 364, 365.
Heterogeneous Mixture, 365. Personal Appearance of the Natives,
365, 366. Characteristic Traits, 366, 367. Melancholy, 367, Dress,
367, 368. Royal Attire, 368. Ornaments, 368, 369. • Sporting in the
Surf, 369, 370. Amusements, 370, 371. Ancient Sport of Hoolua, 371.
Taboo, 371, 372. Marriage, 372. The Kanakas, 372, 373. Articles
of Food, 373. Making Poe, 373. Use of Tobacco, 373. Habits, 373.
Deaths, 373, 374. Mode of Salutation, 374. Arrival of the Missiona-
ries, 374. Abolishment of Taboo and other Ancient Customs, 374, 375.
Errors Committed, 375. Deplorable Condition of the Hawaiian, 375.
The Remedy, 376. Acknowledgment of the Sabbath, and Adoption of
other Reforms, 376, 377. Accession of Kamameha III, 376, 377.
Written Constitution Adopted, 377. Declaration of Rights, 377. Lead-
ing Features of the Constitution, 377, 378. Police Regulations, 378.

XV111 CONTENTS.

Taxes, 379. Schools, 379. Scenery of the Islands, 37d, 380. Soil
and Climate, 380. Common Diseases, 380, 381. Fruit and Timber
Trees, 381, 382. Vegetable Productions, 382. Failure of the Attempt
to Manufacture Silk, 382, 383. Calabash-Tree, 383. Pasturage, 383.
Flowering Plants and Shrubs, 383, 384. Birds. Fish, and Animals, 384,
385. Introduction of Fleas, 385. Honolulu, 385, 386. Waikiki, 386.
Kailua, 387. Lahaina, 387. Hilo Bay, 387. Kealakekua Bay, 387,
388. Waimca, 388. Building Materials, 388. Grass-Houses, 388, 389,
390. Furniture, 390. Commercial Importance of the Hawaiian Group,

390, 391. Exports and Imports, 391. Tonnage, 391. Manufactures,

391, 392. Canoes, 392. Arrival of the Squadron, 392. Voyage to
Oregon, 392, 393.

CHAPTER XVI.

Cruise of the Peacock and Flying Fish, 394. Washington Island, 394.
Phoenix Group, 394, 395. Union Group, 395. Description of the
Islands, 395, 396. The Inhabitants, 396. Dress, 396. Houses, 396,

397. Temple, 397. Wells, 397. Canoes, 397, 398. Mechanical In-
genuity, 398. Dances and Music, 398. Arrival at the Samoan Group,

398, 399. Burning of the Heathen Towns, 399. Ellice's Group, 399,

nee and Character of the Inhabitants, 400. Customs,
400. Ornaments and Dress, 400, 401. Canoes, 401. Implements and
Weapons, 401. Kingsmill Group, 401, 402. Productions, 402. Beauty
of the Climate, 402, 403. Anim lis, Birds, and Fish, 403. Population,

403. Personal Appearance, 403, 40 1. Beauty of the Young Women,

404. Hidei of their Mothers, 404. Practice of Producing Abor-
tions, 404, 405. Inhabitants of Pitt's Island, 405. Character of the
Kingsmill Islanders, 405. Respect paid to the Dead, 405. Want of
Chastity, 406. Social Divisions and Government, 406. Descent of
Rank and Property, 406, -107. Dress and Ornaments, 407. Tattooing,
407. Fondness for War, 107. Weapons and Armor, 407, 408. Ordi-
nary Occupations, 408. Divin 108, 409. Native Elysium, 409.
Births, 409. Marriages, 409, 410. Amusements, 410, 411. Dwelling
Houses, 111. Furniture, 411. 412. Manner of Preparing Food, 412.
Beverages, 412,413. Canoes, 413. Tools, 413. Supposed Murder
Committed by the " 413. Burning of the Town of Utiroii, 413
414. Sailing of the American Vessels, 414. Arrival at the Mouth of
the Columbia, 414. Loss of the Peacock, 114.

CONTENTS. XIX

CHAPTER XVII.

Boundaries of Oregon, 415, 416. Physical Geography, 416. Passes
through the Mountains, 416, 417. Fertility of the Soil, 417. Geology,
417, 418. Population, 418. Indian Tribes, 418. The White Inhabi-
tants,418. Government, 418, 419. Principal Towns, 419. Rivers, 419,
420. Columbia, 419, 420. Other Streams, 420. Harbors, 421, 422.
Puget's Sound, 421. Gray's Harbor, 421. Entrance to the Columbia
River, 421, 422. Tilamuke, Celeste, and Yacquina Bays, 422. Climate
of Oregon, 422, 423. Diseases, 423. Timber Trees, 423, 424. Agri-
cultural Products, 424, 425. Domestic Animals, 425. Fruits, 425.
Game, 425. Wild Fowl, 426. Discovery of California, 426. Expedi-
tions of Cortes, 426, 427. Subsequent Expeditions, 427. Pearl Fish-
eries, 427. Establishment of the Jesuits in California, 427, 428. Col-
onization by the Spaniards, 428. Gold known to Exist, 428. Slow
Progress of the Country, 428, 429. Boundaries, 429. Modern Explor-
ations, 429, 430. Discovery of Gold in 1848, 431. Effect on the
Inhabitants, 431. Manner of Working the Placeras, 431, 432. Extent
of the Gold District, 432. Purity of the Metal, 432, 434. Productive-
ness of the Mines, 434. Other Mineral Products, 435. Mine at Mari-
posa, 436. Prospects for the Future, 436, 437. Yield for the First
Year, 437. Severity of the Labor, 438. Rage for Speculation, 438,
439. Present Population of the Territory, 439. Rapid Immigration,

439, 440. State of Society, 440. Adoption of a State Constitution,

440. Boundary Established by the Convention, 440, 441. Physical
Geography, 441. Rivers, 441, 442. Harbors and Towns, 442, 443.
Climate, 443, 444. Wild Animals, 444. Fertility of the Soil, 444.
Agricultural Products, 444, 445. Forests, 445. Flowering Plants
and Shrubs, 445, 446. Departure, from San Francisco, 446. Arrival at
Manilla, 446.

CHAPTER XVIII.

City of Manilla, 447. Dwelling Houses, 447, 448. Public Buildings, 448.
Cigar Manufactories, 448. Streets and Canals, 448, 449. Suburbs,
449. Population, 449. Society, 449. Dress, 450. Commerce of the
Town, 450. Harbor, 450. The Philippines, 450, 451. Geological
Formation, 451. Character of the Vegetation, 451. Chief Products,
451, 452. Zoology, 452. Climate, 452. Monsoons, 452. Trade and
Manufactures, 453. Pina, 453. Government, 453. Sailing of the
American Vessels, 453, 454. Arrival of the Vincennes at the Sooloo

XX CONTENTS.

Islands, 454. Geography of the Group, 454. Personal Appearance of
the Inhabitants, 454 Customs, 455. Dress, 455. Principal Products,
454, 455. Commerce, 455. Cowry Shells, 455. Treaty with the
Sultan, 455. Voyage to Singapore, 455. Description of the City and
Island, 155, 456. Geology, 45G. Flora and Zoology, 456. Inhabi-
tant?, 456, 457. Commercial Importance, 457. Sailing of the Ameri-
can Squadron, 457. Voyage Home, 457, 458. Cape Town, 458. Ar-
rival in the United States, 458.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.

Destruction of the Cities of the Plain, 461, 462. Traditions, 462. The
Infidel, 462, 463. Ancient and Modern Writers and Travellers, 463.
Scientific Explorations, 463, 464. Expedition Projected by Lieutenant
Lynch, 464. Preparations, 464. Boats for Navigating the Jordan and
the Dead Sea, 464,465. Departure from New York, 465. Arrival at
Smyrna, 465. Appearance of the City, 465, 466. Buildings, 466. Pop-
ulation, 466. Costume and Climate, 467. Firman of the Sultan, 467,
468. Voyage to Beirut, 468. Description of the City, 468,469. Costume
of the Inhabitants, 469. The Tantur, 469, 470. Arrival at St. Jean
d' Acre, 470. Architecture, 471. Landing of the Exploring Party, 471.
Arabian Horses, 471, 472. Sherif Hazza, 472. The Sheikh 'Akil, 472.
The Bedawi of the Desert, 472, 473. Description of his Person and
Mode of Life, 473. Character, 474. Overland March of the American
Exploring Party, 475. Plain of Acre, 475, 476. Arabian Escort, 476.
Appearance of the Cavalcade, 476, 477. Villages of the FeJIahin, 477
Houses, -177. Route taken by the Party, 477, 478. Vegetation, 478
Arrival at Tiberias, 479.

CHAPTKH IT.

Changes on the Shores of the Sea of Galilee, 480, 481. Size and Ap-
pearance of the Lake, 481. Depth of the Water, 481. Its Properties,

CONTENTS. XXI

481. Geology of the Surrounding Country, 482. State of Agriculture,

482. Scriptural Associations, 482, 483. Tiberias, 483. Condition of the
Jews, 483, 484. Sanhedrim, 484. Contrast between the Male and
Female Jews in Personal Appearance, 484. Beauty of the Women,
184, 4S5. Practice of Carrying Water on their Heads, 485. Dress
and Ornaments, 486. Source of the Jordan, 486. Course of the River,
486, 487. Scenery along its Banks, 487. Valley of El-Ghor, 487. Sin-
uosity of the Jordan, 487. Rapids and Cascades, 488. Tributaries, 488.
Analysis of the Water, 488. Sacred Character of the River, 488, 489.
Movements of the American Party, 489. Descent of the Stream, 489,
490. Passing the Rapids, 490,491. Character of the Adjacent Coun-
try, 491. Vegetation of the River Valley, 491, 492. Animals, 492.
Bulbul, 492. Inhabitants living upon the Borders of the River and the
Dead Sea, 492, 493. The Fellahin, 493. Pilgrim's Ford (El-Meshra'a),

493. Anniversary of the Saviour's Baptism, 493, 494. The Bathers,

494, 495. Arrival at the Mouth of the River, 495. Encampment on
the Shore of the Dead Sea 495.

CHAPTER III.

Various Names given to the Dead Sea, 496. Depot of the American
Party, 497. Taking the Soundings, 497. Existence of a Ford dis-
proved, 497. Surveys and Explorations, 497, 498. Pillar of Salt, 498.
Difficulty in making the Surveys, 499. Return to Ain Turabeh, 499.
Dimensions of the Lake, 499, 500. Depth of the Water, 500. Sup-
posed Subterranean Communication not possible, 500. Chemical An-
alysis, 500, 501. Density and Buoyancy of the Water, 501. Other Prop-
erties, 501, 502. Evaporation, 502, 503. Its Rapidity and Cause, 503.
Impregnated State of the Atmosphere, 503, 504. Overhanging Clouds
of Vapor, 504. Popular Superstition, 504. Physical Geography, 505.
Shape of the Sea, 505. The Peninsula, 505. The Mountains, 505,
506. Geology, 506. Shore Outline, 506. Character of the Bottom,
506, 507. Mineral Substances found, 507. . Tributaries, 507. Remarks
of Chateaubriand, 508. Fish, 508. Animals, 508. Birds, 508. Veg-
etable Kingdom, 508, 509. The Apple of Sodom, 508. The Plains
and Deltas, 509. Supposed Position of the Five Cities, 509. Different
Opinions, 509, 510. Ruins alleged to have been seen, 510. Concur-
rence of History and Tradition in regard to the Main Fact, 510. Mod-
ern Theory, 510. Examinations of Robinson and De Bertou, 510.
Opinions of Rev. Mr r Wylie, 511-513. An Error Corrected, 513, 514.

XX11 CONTENTS.

Facts ascertained by Lieutenant Lynch, 514, 515. Inferences and Con-
clusions, 515. Position of the Vale of Siddim, 515. The Argument
based on Scripture, 515, 516. Manner in which the Cities were De-
stroyed, 516. Most Reasonable Supposition, 516. Return of the Ex-
ploring Party, 517.

PART 1.

EXPEDITIONS IN THE PACIFIC

AND THE SOUTH SEAS.

EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS

IN THE SOUTH SEAS.
CHAPTER I.

(I.) Maritime Discovery and Adventure. — (2.) Act of Congress. Organization
and departure of the Exploring Expedition. — (3.) Instructions. — (4.) The
Gulf Stream. — (5.) Incidents of the Voyage. The Western Islands. — (6.) Isl-
and of Madeira. Population and Products. Wine-Making. — (7.) Cape de
Verdes. Porto Praya. — (8.) Passage to Rio Janeiro.

(1.) When the Genoese navigator and philosopher sailed
with his little fleet, from the harbor of Palos, — on the 3d of
August, 1492, — and directed his course over the fathomless
waste of waters outside the pillars of Hercules, in search of
the bright realms of Zipango and Cathay, he marked a new
era in maritime discovery and adventure. The voyages of
the Phoenicians, like those of the Scandinavian navigators at
a later day, do not seem to have been productive of much
benefit to the world at large ; or to have stimulated any ex-
traordinary spirit of enterprise, unless among those immedi-
ately interested in their results, — but the discoveries of
Christopher Columbus aroused the whole Continent of Eu-
rope, and adventurers pushed out from every port and haven,
in quest of the fair land of promise beyond the dark bosom
of the Atlantic.

Expeditions were fitted out in England, France, Spain,
and Portugal, — all having the same object, and prompted by
the same motives. A new world was found in the far-off
West, presenting a

" Sweet interchange
Of hill and valley, rivers, woods, and plains ;"

26 ACT OF CONGRESS. [1836

and rich in mineral wealth, in majestic forests, and a virgin
soil. It was a happy thought, that, when this country —
thus, as it were, called into existence — had become peopled,
and advanced to greatness and distinction, she should repay
the debt of gratitude which she owed, by her discoveries in
the same field in which the enlightened nations of the old
world have been constantly employed for more than three
hundred years. The Coast Survey of the United States —
first proposed in 1806, by the late Professor Patterson, and
warmly favored, at that time, by Albert Gallatin, and other
scientific and learned men, but not commenced until the year
1832 — is a great work, and one from which other countries,
as well as our own, will unquestionably derive the most im-
portant benefits. The comparatively limited information
possessed in regard to the great Southern Ocean, in which
such a vast amount of the capital of our countrymen was
employed, in whaling and other commercial enterprises, next
attracted the attention of the American Congress.

(2.) On the 18th of May, 1836, an act was passed au-
thorizing an Expedition to be fitted out — the first, of a similar
character, undertaken by the national government — for the
purpose of exploring and surveying the Southern Ocean, " as
well to determine the existence of all doubtful islands and
shoals, as to discover, and accurately fix, the position of
those which [lay] in or near the track of our vessels in that
quarter, and [might] have escaped the observation of scientific
navigators."* Liberal appropriations were made for accom-
plishing the objects of the Expedition, and it was at first or-
ganized under Commodore Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, of the
United States Navy : he subsequently resigned the station,
and was succeeded, in turn, by several different officers, until,
finally, on the 20th of March, 1838, Lieutenant Charles
Wilkes assumed the command.

The novelty of the undertaking occasioned numerous delays
and hindrances ; but, early in the month of August, 1838,

♦ Three other Exploring Expeditions were undertaken in the South Seas, at
the same time; two English, and one French.

1838.] DEPARTURE OP THE EXPEDITION. 27

the expedition was ready to sail, — though, as it afterwards
appeared, some of the vessels were not in as good condition
as they should have been. The squadron consisted of the
sloop of war Vincennes, the flag-ship of the commander of the
expedition ; the sloop of war Peacock, Lieutenant William
L. Hudson ; the brig Porpoise, Lieutenant Cadwalader Ring-
gold ; the store-ship Relief, Lieutenant A. K. Long ; and
the tenders Sea-Gull and Flying-Fish. As it was deemed
important to divest the expedition of all military character,
the armament provided for it was adapted merely for defence
against the savage and warlike inhabitants of the South Sea
islands. The boats of the vessels were all clinker-built, with
the exception of the launches, like those used by whalers and
sealers.

A full corps of scientific gentlemen, consisting of philol-
ogists, naturalists, conchologists, mineralogists, botanists,
horticulturists, taxidermists, and draughtsmen — all employed
by the government — accompanied the Expedition. An ample
supply of books, and a complete set of charts and instruments,
of the most approved character and workmanship, were also
furnished ; and several able reports of philosophical and other
societies, together with a memorandum transmitted to the
Navy Department by Vice- Admiral Krusenstern, of the Rus-
sian Navy, were placed in the hands of Lieutenant Wilkes.

All things being in readiness, on the 9th of August, the
squadron, which had been fitted out at Norfolk, dropped down
to Hampton Roads and anchored. On the 12th instant, they
were joined by the tenders, and on the 17th Lieutenant
Wilkes received his final instructions from the Navy Depart-
ment. Signal was at once made that the squadron was
under sailing orders. At three o'clock in the afternoon of
the following day, the vessels weighed anchor ; but as the
breeze soon- fell away, they anchored again at the Horse-
shoe. In a couple of hours the wind freshened, and the
whole squadron stood down the bay in company. During
the night the breeze slackened once more, and they made
very little progress. Early in the morning of the 19th, how-

28 INSTRUCTIONS. [1838.

ever, they passed Cape Henry Light, and at nine o'clock hove
to, and discharged their pilots. The ships then stood out to
sea together. This being Sunday, all hands were called to
muster at eleven o'clock, and an impressive sermon was de-
livered on board the Vincennes, by the Chaplain, Mr. Elliot.
He alluded, in eloquent terms, to the arduous nature of the
enterprise in which they had embarked, and the probably dis-
tant period when they would be permitted to return to the
bright shores then rapidly sinking below the western horizon ;
and appropriately cautioned his hearers, through weal and
woe, to put their trust in Him who holds the tempest in the
hollow of his hand.

(3.) The instructions issued to Lieutenant Wilkes, re-
quired him, in the first place, to shape his course to Rio
Janeiro, crossing the line between longitude 18° and 22°
West, and keeping within those meridians to about latitude
10° South, in order to determine the existence of certain
vigias, or shoals, laid down in the charts as doubtful. Hav-
ing replenished his supplies at Rio, — the longitude of which,
as well as of Cape Frio, was to be determined, — he was di-
rected to make a particular examination of the Rio Negro,
which falls into the South Atlantic ; and then to proceed to
a safe port, or ports, in Tierra del Fuego, where the larger
vessels were to be securely moored, while he explored the
South Antartic, to the southward of Powell's Group, and be-
tween it and Sandwich Land, with the brig Porpoise and the
tenders. In the meantime, the officers left at Tierra del Fuego
were to make accurate examinations and surveys of the bays,
ports, inlets, and sounds, in that region.

On rejoining the vessels at Tierra del Fuego, Lieutenant
Wilkes was ordered to stretch towards the southward and
westward, wiih the whole squadron, as far as the Ne Plus
Ultra of Cook, or longitude 105° West, and to return north-
ward to Valparaiso, where a store-ship would join them, in
March, 1839. From that port, he was to direct his course
to the Navigator's Group, — so disposing his vessels, in the
latitudes where discoveries might be reasonably anticipated,

1838.] ADDITIONAL ORDERS. 29

as that they should sweep the broadest expanse of ocean
practicable, — and thence to the Feejee Islands, where he was
to select a safe harbor for whalers and public vessels of the
United States, and make such arrangements as would insure
their being furnished with supplies.

From the Feejee Islands, he was to proceed to the port of
Sydney, and then make a second attempt to penetrate within
the Antartic region, south of Van Diemen's Land, and as far
west as longitude 45° East, or to Enderby's Land. The
squadron was then to rendezvous at Kerguelen's Land, usually
called the Isle of Desolation, and proceed to the Sandwich
Islands, where a store-ship from the United States would
meet them, in April, 1840. Thence they were to sail to the
Northwest Coast of America, and make surveys and exami-
nations of the coast of Oregon and California. From this
coast, they were to repair to that of Japan, — taking as many
doubtful islands as possible on their route, — and make a par-
ticular examination of the Sea of Japan, and the Sea of
Sooloo, or Mindoro. Having completed this examination,
Lieutenant Wilkes was instructed to ascertain the disposi-
tion of the inhabitants of the islands of that archipelago for
commerce, their productions and resources ; after which he
was to proceed to the Straits of Sunda, — pass through the
Straits of Billiton, — touch at Singapore, where he would
meet a store-ship, — and then return home by the way of the
Cape of Good Hope.

In addition to the orders necessarily suggested by the fore-
going instructions, Lieutenant Wilkes directed every officer
of the Expedition to keep a journal, in which everything that
occurred during the voyage was to be carefully noted. These
journals were to be weekly submitted to him for inspection,
and, on the return of the Expedition, to be disposed of ac-
cording to the directions of the Secretary of the Navy. The
scientific gentlemen were admonished to lose no opportunity
to procure information in their several departments. Meteo-
rological observations were required to be taken four times
daily ; and particular instructions were given to measure and

30 THE GULF STREAM. [183S.

observe, all astronomical and atmospherical phenomena, and
every unusual appearance connected with the weather, such
as shooting stars, zodiacal lights, aurora borealis, rainbows,
halos, water-spouts, the Magellanic clouds,* lightning, and rain.

After several days' trial, the store-ship Relief was found to
be so dull a sailer — the other vessels being frequently required
to lie to for her — that Lieutenant Wilkes determined to part
company. Lieutenant Long was therefore ordered to pro-
ceed, with all practicable dispatch, to Porto Praya, izi the
island of St. Jago, and thence to Rio Janeiro. In case of
separation, the remaining vessels of the squadron were di-
rected to rendezvous at Madeira.

(4.) Immediately after leaving the Capes of Virginia, the
iniluence of the cold polar, or counter-current, flowing paral-
lel to the coast, close to the inner edge of the Gulf Stream,
from Davis' Straits as far south as Cape Hatteras, was sen-
sibly felt.t In crossing the Gulf Stream, the squadron were
highly favored. They had light winds, and their progress
was so slow, that they were forty-eight hours in passing it,
although they were most of the time sailing at right angles to
its direction. When they entered the stream, a sudden rise
of the temperature of the water was indicated by the ther-
mometer, which went up from 77° to 83° in a few hours, but
soon fell again to a mean temperature of about 80°, — thus
showing that the stream is considerably warmer towards the
inner edge than on the outer. Its breadth, where the
squadron crossed it, on the parallel of 34° 30', was ascer-
tained to be fifty-three miles, and its velocity two miles per
hour. These data are not very reliable, however, as it is now
well settled, that both the breadth and velocity fluctuate very
materially.^

* The Magellanic clouds are three conspicuous nebulae, bearing the appearance
of thin white clouds, situated near the south pole. They derive their name from
Magellan, the distinguished Portuguese navigator.

f This current is sometimes called the eddy of the Gulf Stream ; but the great
difference in the temperature shows conclusively that the idea is erroneous.

^ The observations of the officers of the Exploring Expedition, while in the
Gulf Stream, were, necessarily, very limited ; consequently, they do not appear

1838.J ISLAND OP MADEIRA. 3]

(5.) On the 25th of August, the squadron laid its course
towards the island of Madeira. The winds had been light
and the sea smooth, but on the night of the 26th there came
up a squall, during which the Peacock and the Flying-Fish
parted company with the other vessels.

The first days in September were clear, bright, and beau-
tiful ; immense shoals of flying fish disported about the prows
of the ships, or darted through the air to escape from their
voracious pursuers ; and beautiful dolphins, and " deep-sea"
sharks, were seen in every direction. In the morning of the
6th, they encountered a huge cotton-wood tree, one hundred
and twenty feet in length, and fourteen feet in circumference ;
all covered over with barnacles, and much eaten by the tere-
dine, or sea borer ; and probably thousands on thousands
of miles from the place where it grew — on the banks of the
Mississippi. In the afternoon of the 9th instant, they passed
in sight of the Peak of Pico, one of the Azores, or Western
Islands, and on the following day made the northern coast of
St. Michael's, belonging to the same group, a high and moun-
tainous island, but exceedingly fertile, and dotted with groves
and villas, and rich cultivated fields, which could just be dis-
cerned with the glass.

(6.) At daylight on the 16th of September, the tall cliffs,
and jagged precipices, of the island of Madeira, were dis-
covered looming up above the wide expanse of waters at the
south. The first sight of the island does not produce a favor-
able impression, but a nearer view discloses scenery remark-
ably picturesque, and, indeed, beautiful. Bold, embattled
cliffs, rising to the height of sixteen hundred feet, the abodes
of the ospray and sea-gull, and beneath which is heard the

to have remarked the singular fact disclosed by the examinations of Lieutenant
Bache— who was unfortunately wrecked off Cape Hatteras, while engaged in
the Coast Survey, on the 8th of September, 1846,— that the whole current of
warm water, to the depth of at least four hundred and eighty fathoms, divides
itself into two principal branches, separated by a portion of cold water. The
transition from the cold to the warm water, on the inner edge of the stream, is
said to be almost as instantaneous, as if the two were separated by a wall, nearly
Derpendicular, except that it inclines slightly to the east at the top.

32 FERTILITY. [1838.

ceaseless roar of the ocean surf, stand like giant warders, on
every hand. The shores are indented by a few small bays,
receiving the waters of the mountain streamlets, at the upper
extremities of which are the little villages whose white walls
glisten like enamel in the beams of the morning sun.

Throughout its whole extent, the island is mountainous,
and the western half is divided by a central ridge, five thou-
sand feet high, upon which is spread out the vast plain of
Paul de Serra, mostly overgrown, and used for breeding
horses and mules. Deep gorges, with steep precipitous sides,
everywhere intersect the elevated ground. The intervals,
and the lower slopes of the hills, are highly productive, and
even the mountain tops are clothed with rich verdure, or
groves of heath and broom, — not the stunted varieties of
northern climes, but the luxuriant growth of the tropics.
From the rugged character of the scenery, it might be sup-
posed that but a small portion of the island could be cultiva-
ted ; yet, what nature has done amiss, or left unfinished, man
has attempted to remedy and complete. Terraces, supported
by stone walls, girt the acclivities, even to their summits ;
and green patches start out, like emeralds, in bold relief, from
the dark red soil that surrounds them. Within the narrow
compass of this delightful spot, the productions of the torrid
and temperate zones are brought together : on the lower ter-
races, oranges, citrons, and lemons, may be found ; higher
up, are bananas, figs, and pomegranates ; still higher, apples,
currants, pears, peaches, plums, melons, tomatoes and egg-
plants, greet the sight ; and above all these grows the potato,
solitary and alone.

Before sunset on the 16th, the Vincennes, Porpoise, and
Sea-Gull, cast anchor in the harbor of Funchal, on the south-
ern side of Madeira, the capital of the island. The Peacock
and Flying-Fish joined them on the following day, — when a
party of officers was made up to go ashore, and pay their re-
spects to the civil governor, Baron de Lordello, and the mili-
tary commandant, Seiior Rebello, who received them very
courteously During the stay of the squadron, every point

1838.J FUNCHAL. 33

of particular attraction was visited by one or more parties ;
the inhabitants usually receiving them with the utmost kind-
ness and cordiality.

The Madeira Islands belong to Portugal, and consist of
Madeira proper, Porto Santo, and the Desert Isles. The
first two, the only ones inhabited, are included in one district,
and contain about one hundred and twenty thousand inhabi-
tants, of all sexes and classes. The people are very loyal to
their present sovereign, Donna Maria ; their taxes are not
very heavy ; and though beggars are somewhat numerous
among them, they may be generally regarded as exceedingly
industrious. They are gay and cheerful in their dispositions,
and, with rare exceptions, hospitable and generous.

Funchal, the capital of the island of Madeira, is pleasantly
situated on the southern shore, surrounded by an amphitheatre
of lofty hills, terminating, on one side, in Loo Rock, a bold
quadrangular precipice, with a fortification on the summit,
which overlooks the harbor in front of the town. It contains
some eight or ten thousand inhabitants, most of whom reside
in neat whitewashed cottages one story in height, though there
are many more imposing structures, provided with verandahs,
or light airy colonnades. The streets are narrow, but well-
paved, and present quite a cleanly appearance. There are a
number of churches and convents, which are always lighted
in the early part of the evening. The prisons are well-filled,
and extremely filthy. This may be attributed, however, to
defective laws, as every offender is required to be sent to Por-
tugal for trial, and sometimes years elapse before he leaves
the island.

In addition to Funchal, there are several other pretty towns,
among which are Santa Cruz, Porto Delgada, and San Vin-
cente, on the north side of the island, and Canical and Cb-
mancha, on the east side. The principal objects of interest
to the tourist, are, the Curral, — a circular gorge, as the name
implies, in the midst of the mountains, — the winding pass at
Estroza, and the Convent of Our Lady of the Mountain, the
highest building on the island.

2*

34 APPEARANCE OF THE INTERIOR. [1838.

There are, also, many fine rides in the interior. After as-
cending the heights in rear of Funchal, you may travel miles
on miles, over hard and well-conditioned roads, or bridle-paths,
Dordered with hedges of roses and myrtles ; with trellises sup-
porting an infinite variety of gaudy colored creepers, or aro-
matic shrubs that load the air with perfume ; or with stone
walls, literally buried beneath the long trailing vines loaded
down with their rich. clusters of grapes. Gardens stocked
with fruit trees, extensive vineyards, and fields of wheat, bar-
ley, rye, and maize, arrest the attention on every hand. Neat
cottages are discovered imbosomed amid thickets of tropical
plants ; and the humbler habitations of the peasantry, with
their low walls formed of huge blocks of lava, and their tall
thatches of broom, are constantly peeping out from the lux-
uriant foliage which surrounds them. Through the gorges
of the mountains, glimpses open of almost fathomless depths,
at the bottom of which are labyrinths of sweet-scented shrub-
beries, miniature forests of dahlias, fuchsias, hydrangeas,
geraniums, variegated convolvuli, and Ethiopian lilies. The
spreading plane tree, the majestic palm, the dark and glossy-
leaved banana, and the Madeira walnut,* enlivened, now and
then, by the white tufts of the cotton-wood, abound on the
lower terraces ; and the beetling cliffs above are crowned
with mountain heath and laurel, with towering cedars, oaks,
and elms. Over all this bright and glorious scenery, rests an
atmosphere remarkably soft, pure, and transparent.

Travelling is usually performed on the Madeira ponies, — a
tough and hardy, race of animals, like the Shetland breed, —
or in sedans. The latter are generally preferred by the ladies.
The hauling of heavy articles is principally done by the small
oxen of the island, on sledges resembling the stone boats in
use among American farmers. These are employed alto-
gether in the seaport towns, for conveying pipes of wine ; but
the liquor is brought from the interior, in sheep-skins, sowed
together so as nearly to preserve the form of the animal,
which are slung over the backs of the peasants.

* The Madeira nut is the product of this tree.

1838.] WINE MAKING. 35

The inhabitants of Madeira are of Moorish origin, though
free negroes, and descendants of the European race, are fre-
quently to be met with. The men are tall, muscular, and
well-built. The women, particularly among the peasantry,
are masculine and vigorous, and rarely exhibit any traces of
beauty : as they share the labors of their husbands, the soft-
ness natural to the sex is very soon destroyed. All are tough
and hearty, and capable of enduring great and long-continued
fatigue. Among the higher classes, the fashions of Spain
and Portugal are imitated or copied ; and rustling silks and
gay velvets are often seen in the streets. The dress of the
peasant is far less expensive, yet quite picturesque : the men
wear trowsers descending as low as the knee, and shirts and
jackets of the brightest colors ; and the women, bodices laced
with pretty ribbons, and short gayly-striped petticoats. A
corneal cap, common to both sexes, completes the costume.

The difference between the imports and exports of Madeira,
indicates a high state of prosperity. The former barely ex-
ceed one hundred thousand dollars annually, principally con-
sisting of staves, rice, and oil ; while more than eight thou-
sand pipes of wine, valued at over one and a half million of
dollars, are exported during the same period. Most of the
cereal grams, sugar, coffee, and taro, are produced in abun-
dance. Large quantities of fine beef, vegetables, and fruit,
are furnished, also, to the vessels that stop at the island.
But the great staple is the far-famed Madeira wine, the best
qualities of which, the connoisseur need not be told, come
from the " south-side." Great care is taken to maintain the
reputation of the wine, and the laws are so strict, that even
the genuine article, once shipped, cannot be introduced into
the island.

The method of manufacturing the wine is certainly very
primitive, and differs but little from that in vogue among the
nations of the East in olden times. The grapes are deposited
in an elevated vat, usually about six feet square and two feet
deep, under an open shed covered with a thatch roof. Some
half a dozen bare-legged and hare- footed peasants, then spring

36 SAILING OF THE SQUADRON. [1838.

into the vat, and commence stamping furiously, accompany-
ing their motions with a rude song. After this process has
been continued for a sufficient length of time, the legs of the
men are scraped, and the pomace set up in the shape of a
cone, and bound about with the young cuttings of the vine.
A lever, to which a large stone, or rock, is attached by a
screw, is now applied, and the juice expressed into tubs, —
one gallon being generally obtained from two bushels of grapes.
The must is drawn off into casks, in which it ferments ; it is
then clarified with gypsum or isinglass, and the necessary
spirit imparted to it by the addition of two or three gallons
of brandy to a pipe.

(7.) Having completed their repairs, the Exploring Squad-
ron weighed anchor in the afternoon of the 25th of Septem-
ber, and sailed from the harbor of Funchal, in the direction
of the Cape de Verdes. Delightful weather, and cool breezy
winds, attended them during the whole time they were at
sea. Passing Bonavista, one of the Cape de Verdes, to which
the sailors have given the sobriquet of " Bonny- wiskers,"
without stopping, they came in sight of the island of Mayo,
belonging to the same group, which loomed darkly in the dis-
tance, at four o'clock in the afternoon of the 6th of October,
and shortly before midnight lay to off St. Jago, the principal
island. On the night of the 6th, a most brilliant display of
the radiate animalculae, known as Medusa, or sea-nettles, was
witnessed. The vast expanse of waters seemed paved with
innumerable diamonds that out-sparkled the stars which
glimmered above them, and wavy floods of phosphorescent
light dashed against the vessels, or rolled slowly in towards
the shore. Long trains of glittering light marked the courses
of the fish ; and the motion of a rudder, or the disturbance
occasioned in the water by anything thrown overboard, pro-
duced beautiful flashing coruscations. A number of exper-
iments were made, from which it was satisfactorily ascer-
tained that the animalculoe did not extend below eighteen
fathoms' water.

fn the morning of the 7th of October, the fleet turned the

1838.] THE CAPE DE VERDES. 37

tall bluff upon which stands the flag-staff and a ruined forti-
fication, on the right of the entrance to the harbor, and came
to anchor in the bay of Porto Praya.

The Cape de Verdes were discovered by the Portuguese,
in 1460, and are still subject to the crown of Portugal. The
islands are about twenty in number, and contain seventy-five
thousand inhabitants, thirty thousand of whom reside in St.
Jago. The population is principally composed of mulattoes
and blacks, — there being but few native Portuguese. Some
of the blacks adhere to their vernacular tongue ; but the
common medium of conversation is a horrid jargon com-
pounded of the Negro and Portuguese dialects. Near the
sea, the islands are low, sandy, and barren ; but further in-
land, there are lofty hills and mountains, which afford pas-
turage for numerous herds of cattle and goats. On the coast,
the water is brackish ; but it is brought from the interior —
except in St. Jago — of good quality, in goatskins, on the backs
of asses. The islands are only tolerably fertile, and are sub-
ject to frequent droughts, probably occasioned by the preva-
lence of the dry hot winds blowing from the Sahara, or Great
Desert of Africa. In 1832, the inhabitants suffered severely
from a visitation of this character. Their cattle were starved,
and they would themselves have perished, had it not been for
the contributions made for their relief in other countries, par-
ticularly in the United States. The generous conduct of the
citizens of the latter government is still remembered among
them with the liveliest emotions of gratitude. The climate
is said to be healthy, though very warm. The rainy season
continues only three months ; it commences about the middle
of July, and terminates about the middle of October, when
everything assumes a livelier, fresher, and more verdant ap-
pearance.

The productions of this group of islands are not numerous,
and the inhabitants are dependent on the vessels stopping
there for many articles of comfort and convenience, for which
they exchange their own products. Beef, poultry, eggs, fresh
fish, cabbages, beans, pumpkins, squashes, corn, sweet pota-

38 productions. [1838.

■

toes, yams, bananas, dates, tamarinds, limes, oranges, and the
fruit of the cocoanut tree, are usually quite plenty. Sugar
and coffee are also raised in small quantities, and an inferior
quality of wine, but a small portion of which is exported, is
likewise produced. A palatable article of cheese is made
from goats' milk. The flour used is imported, principally
from the United States ; but a very good kind of bread is
prepared from the roots of the manihot, or cassada plant,
which are also roasted and eaten like potatoes.* The fecula,
or starch, obtained by scraping and washing the roots, is
called tapioca.

Coarse salt, hides, goatskins, wine, and archil, are the
main exports. The salt plantations, as they are called, are
situated on the level, alluvial ground, near the coast. The
land appropriated to the purpose is plotted into vats, by banks
of clay, from one to two feet high, which become baked by
the heat of the sun. The salt water is then pumped into the
vats from wells, and exposed to evaporation. It is not an
unusual sight to see a whole family, men, women, and chil-
dren, engaged in the " plantation." Considerable attention
is paid to neatness, and the walks between the vats are kept
scrupulously clean. Archil is a lichen, which grows on the
rocks, and is found both in the Canary and Cape de Verde
Islands. It yields a rich purple color, which is exceedingly
beautiful, but not durable. The blue pigment, litmus, is
prepared from it. At the Cape de Verdcs, archil is a govern-
ment monopoly ; ninety thousand millreas, — equal to fifty-
six thousand, two hundred and fifty dollars, American cur-
rency, — being paid by a company, for the annual crop.

The houses of the Cape de Verdians are miserable huts,
built of stone, not six feet high, and thatched with salt hay,
or palm leaves. Some are circular, some square, and others
oblong. Occasionally one may be seen with a shingled roof.
As fuel is scarce, the estiercol of the nss is used in its stead,

* The bread made from the rrmnihot was the principal article of food among
the Caribs, when they were first discovered by the Europeans. They called it
Yuca.

1838.] PORTO PRAYA. 39

as hunters and travellers on the American prairies use the
bois de vache of the buffalo. Horses are found here, but the
principal beast of burden is the ass, which carries its load in
panniers. A long string of the animals, frequently seen
dashing at full speed over the sand, is called a hato.

White cotton shirts, aprons, and trowsers, are worn by the
men, with dark vests, generally purchased at second hand
from the crews of the vessels frequenting the islands. Some-
times they wear straw hats on their heads, but oftener noth-
ing. Party-colored turbans and handkerchiefs form the head-
gear of the women ; a shawl fastened about the waist, and
another thrown over the bust and tied behind, complete the
dress.

The gobernddor, or governor, of the islands, resides at
Porto Praya, in St. Jago. This island is about sixty miles
in circumference, and is the most fertile and productive of the
group. The former capital was Ribeira Grande, but Porto
Praya now enjoys that distinction. The latter contains be-
tween two and three thousand inhabitants, and is situated on
an elevated plateau overlooking the bay. Its whitewashed
walls and battlements may be descried far out at sea, and
betoken a greater degree of cleanliness than is witnessed on
landing. Blind beggars and naked children, — pigs, fowls,
and monkeys, — cross the path at every step. Black soldiers,
wi th huge muskets generally out of repair, patrol the entrdda
of the Presidio, or governor's house ; and a squad of dirty
recruits going through the manual exercise is usually the
most striking object in the -plaza. Officers, as well as men,
including the governor, are black. A market is held daily in
the square, when there are any vessels in port.

A rocky ghaut, or pass, leads to the Valley of Dates, half
a mile west of the town, which is one of the most attractive
features of the island. Here was formerly the public foun-
tain, from which water was obtained for the inhabitants and
shipping. They are now supplied by a reservoir, constructed
at the expense of the government, and filled with water
brought in iron pipes a distance of two miles. The soil of

40 ARRIVAL AT RIO JANEIRO. [183S.

the valley is a iich loam and the*date tree grows luxuriantly.
Lime, orange, banana, cocoanut, tamarind and papavv trees, 41
are also scattered through it, together with other tropical
fruits and plants.

(S.) The squadron left Porto Praya on the 7th of October,
and continued their course southward, in search of the shoals,
said to lie in this quarter of the ocean, off the African
coast ; but none of particular importance were discovered.
The nights were clear and beautiful till near morning, and
the zodiacal light was once or twice observed. Falling stars,
some of them of unusual brilliancy, were witnessed on the
morning of the 18th of October, and on the nights of the
11th, 12th, and 13th, of November. Large shoals of dol-
phins, and wide luminous patches of phosphorescent animal-
cuke, were also seen. About the first of November, they
crossed the Equator, and on the 22d caught sight of the rich
neutral-tints resting, like a halo, over the tall and rugged
summit of Cape Frio, forty miles north of Rio Janeiro.
Favored by a light wind from the southeast, they entered the
broad harbor of Rio, under full press of canvas, on the af-
ternoon of the 23d ; having accomplished the passage in
ninety-five days, about twice the time usually required by a
vessel proceeding directly from the United States. The
store-ship Relief took the direct course ; but, in consequence
of her slow sailing, she was one hundred days, three of which
were spent at the Cape do Verdes, in making the trip.

* The papaw. or papaya, grows to the height of eighteen or twenty feet. It
is nearly naked to the top, where the haves start out on every side, with long
footstalks. The fruit, about the size of a melon, grows between the leaves, and
is boiled, and cairn with meat, like ordinary vegetables. The juice is pungent
and milky, but Ibis is extracted by the process of boiling.

CHAPTER II.

(1.) Harbor of Rio Janeiro. — (2.) Palace of the Emperor. His Birthday. —
(3.) Churches in the city. Sunday. — (4.) Private Dwellings. Streets and
Fountains. — (5.) Number of inhabitants. State of Education. Funerals.
Amusements. — (6.) Condition and occupations of the slaves. — (7.) Suburbs
of the city. Appearance of the country — (8.) The Empire of Brazil. Pro
ducts. — (9.) Mines. — (10.) Imports and Exports. — (11.) Sailing of the
Squadron.

(1.) Coming from the sea, Rio Janeiro, or more properly,
perhaps, Rio de Janeiro, presents a grand and imposing ap-
pearance. The city is built on the southern shore, close to
the entrance, of the bay of the same name. Near it, but
higher up, is the pretty town of San Domingo, and directly
opposite, is Praya Grande. The bay is a fine sheet of water,
one hundred miles in circumference, and sprinkled, here and
there, with small evergreen islands.

On the right, as you pass up to the anchorage, is Fort
Santa Cruz, at the foot of Signal Hill ; on the left is Fort
St. Lucia, on an island near the mainland ; beyond this, in
the same direction, is Sugar Loaf Hill — an isolated rock one
thousand feet high, around whose lofty crest the white fleecy
clouds forever linger ; and further on, are the notched and
uneven peaks of Gavia and Corcovado. In front is the busy
and thriving capital of the Brazilian Empire, — a forest of
tapering masts and spars in the foreground, and richly deco-
rated churches, glittering facades, and massive tiled roofs, in
the rear. Behind these are the blooming environs of the
city, gay gardens, delightful quint as, cool shady groves and
verdant forests, stretching far away into the interior, — a con-
stant succession of beautiful objects meeting the eye, till the
view is bounded in the west by the towering pinnacles of the

42 BIRTHDAY OF THE EMPEROR. [183b.

Organ Mountains, boldly pencilled against the pure azuro
of a tropical sky.

(2.) St. Christ-oval, in the suburbs of Rio Janeiro, is the
usual residence of the Emperor, Pedro II ; but his principal
levees are held at the city palace, which he occupies on all
great occasions. This is almost the first prominent object
that presents itself, after ascending the rickety stairs at the
usual place of landing. It stands on the Rua Direita, the
broadest street in the city, and is a heavy stone structure in
the shape of a parallelogram. It has a front of one hundred
and fifty feet, and extends about two hundred feet to the
rear. The main centre building is three stories high, and
the wings two stories. On one side of the court, in the cen-
tre of the palace, is the Senate House, and on the other a
splendid church belonging to the Carmelite friars, near which
is the Imperial chapel, a pretty little bijou of a thing erected
by the mother of the Emperor.* The Chamber of Deputies
is nearly a mile from the palace, in the Campo de Aclangao.

While the Exploring Squadron was lying in the harbor of
Rio, the Emperor made a visit to the city palace, in state, on
the occasion of his birth day, which took place on the 2d of
December. Escorted by a large body of troops, he entered
the city about noon, in a splendid gilt carriage, English
built, drawn by eight cream-colored horses guided by grooms
in rich liveries. His two sisters, one sixteen, and the other
fourteen years of age — the former of whom afterwards mar-
ried the Prince de Joinville, son of Louis Philippe — rode in
the carriage with him. The inhabitants collected every-
where on the line of his route to welcome him. Triumphal
arches spanned the streets ; rich satin draperies, intermingled
with festoons of natural and artificial flowers, ornamented
the fronts of the dwellings ; national flags were displayed on
every public building ; and the custom-house was ornamented
with a bright collection of standards, conspicuous among
which was that of the American Union. The ships in the

* The Empress was for a long time childless, and made a vow that she would
erect a church when she became a mother, which she religiously fulfilled.

1838.] CHURCHES IN THE CITY. 43

bay were dressed with flags, and at twelve o'clock, meridian,
a grand royal salute was fired from the forts, which was re-
turned by the vessels of war. As the Imperial pageant
passed on, loud prolonged vivas mingled with the clashing of
cymbals, and the braying of trumpets. The Emperor was
then but a mere lad, only thirteen years of age ; yet he re-
turned the congratulations of his subjects with ease and dig-
nity. Arrived at the great square in front of the palace,
which was densely crowded with citizens, and strangers from
the four quarters of the globe, a, feu dejoie was fired by the
troops, the Emperor exhibited himself in the balconies of the
palace, and a levee, attended by the foreign ministers and
their suites, completed the ceremonies of the day.

(3.) Rio abounds in churches. On the outside, they bear
marks of decay, and the steps and vestibules are frequently
used by the market people to display their wares. In the
interior, however, they are gorgeously decorated, with orna-
ments of gold and silver, and fine specimens of painting and
sculpture. The music is always good, and on important oc-
casions especially attractive. The inhabitants are principally
Roman Catholics, but they are fast losing their attachment
to the religion of their forefathers. The churches are regu-
larly opened for public worship on the Sabbath, and at other
times during the week, but they are slimly attended. As in
most Catholic countries, Sunday is a complete gala day.
The stores and shops, particularly those where fancy articles
are sold, and the cafes and coffee saloons, are kept open ;
hunting, riding, and fishing, usurp the place of the forms and
ceremonies prescribed in the ritual ; the billiard rooms are
crowded ; and the performances at the theatres, of which
there are three in the city, are witnessed by a far more nu-
merous auditory than may be seen in the Cathedral.

The English and American residents erected a neat Epis-
copal church, near the public gardens on the bay, in 1820,
which is inclosed by an iron railing, and has a yard in front
paved with granite. Service is held here with great punctu-

44 DWELLINGS AND STREETS. [1838.

ality ; and there are missionaries belonging to other denomi-
nations residing in the city.

(4.) The houses are built of granite, large beds of which
have been opened in the vicinity of the capital. The blocks
are cemented together with clay, in consequence of the
scarcity of lime, which is principally obtained by burning
sea-shells. The floors, beams, and rafters, are made of the
hard wood for which Brazil is famous. This is susceptible
of a high polish, and might be made to add very much to
the neatness and beauty of the dwellings ; but wainscoting
is scarcely ever seen, and the interior walls and ceilings are
usually provided with a rough coating of plaster, though the
apartments of the wealthier citizens are often ornamented
with stucco work and fresco painting, in rich and fanciful
designs, or with silk and damask curtains and tapestries.
The outer walls are also plastered, and generally wear a
lively look. Most of the houses are two stories in height,
though some exceed this. They have tall pyramidal roofs,
surmounted with red tiles, which sometimes project fearfully.
The doors and windows have heavy lintels and casings ; and
jutting balconies, and wide, disproportion ed — though, in a
hot day, very comfortable — verandas, are regarded as essen-
tial requisites to every private habitation.

With one or two exceptions, the streets are long and nar-
row, and, for the most part, gloomy and sombre in appearance.
They are badly paved with rudely-fashioned blocks of granite,
and in the middle of them are the gutters, the receptacles of
all the filth and abomination of a seaport town. Sidewalks
are mainly dispensed with, and those which have been con-
structed are never in good repair. There can be no just ex-
cuse for the want of cleanliness indicated by the condition of
the streets. The location is highly favorable ; wheeled ve-
hicles for carrying burdens are comparatively little used, only
a few antique coaches, ami two-wheeled calescas, or calashes,
occasionally jolting along over the rough pavements ; and an
abundant supply of water is brought in aqueducts, from the
Corcovado and Tejuca mountains, six or seven miles distant.

1838.] POPULATION OF THE CITY. 45

There are numerous fountains, also, scattered over the city,
in the plazas, or squares ; and sparkling jets of crystal water
may be seen in all directions, diffusing their grateful coolness
through the heated and impure atmosphere. Some of the
reservoirs have tastefully constructed edifices erected over
them, which are alike useful and ornamental. The inhabi-
tants rely, almost entirely, upon the fountains, for water for
domestic purposes, which is carried by their slaves, in jars, or
buckets, on their heads ; and " from dusky morn till dewy
eve," they are surrounded by a motley collection of water-
carriers, engaged in filling their vessels, chattering the while
like so many magpies, and laughing and jesting gayly with
their companions. Near the fountain of Hafariz, the largest
in the city, there are two stone basins, fifty feet long and
twenty-five wide, which are daily filled with from two to
three hundred negro washerwomen, who stand in the water,
often half naked, all the day long, constantly drubbing and
rinsing their clothes.

(5.) The city of Rio Janeiro contains not far from two
hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, a great part of
whom are slaves. In former years, the society was not very
good, but latterly there has been a change for the better in
this respect, though there is still sufficient room for improve-
ment. Comparatively little attention is paid to education,
especially among the female sex. The presence of the foreign
ministers and their suites, and of intelligent merchants and
travellers, has given a higher tone and polish to society,
though the intercourse between the Brazilians and the citi-
zens of other countries is not altogether free from restraint.
This may be attributed, partly to the natural jealousy of
their dispositions, and partly to the consciousness of their de-
fective education. Females are rarely seen at public assem-
blages and parties, and the visits which they interchange
with each other are rather formal and ceremonious than
cheerful and friendly. These impediments and drawbacks
to an easy and unrestrained social intercourse are gradually
. being softened down, and they must soon entirely disappear

46 STATE OF SOCIETY. [1838.

The time cannot be very far distant when Rio will become,
what the capital of one of the richest countries on the Amer-
ican Continent ought to be, as celebrated for the taste and
refinement of its inhabitants, as for its importance and ad-
vantages as a commercial city.

A fondness for meretricious display and ornament is ex-
hibited by both sexes in their dress ; they endeavor to follow
the French mode, but are such zealous copyists that they
very often overdo the original. This is much better, how-
ever, than the opposite extreme. It is certainly more desir-
able that the Brazilian ladies should appear in dresses
powdered with jewels, or fringed with silver, or in party-col-
ored robes and ribbons, on the most unsuitable occasions, than
that they should be confined to their boudoirs — their only
knowledge of the world derived from occasional glimpses
through their half-opened jalousies, and from the balconies of
their apartments — or immured for life in the dark walls of a
convent. Ease and suavity of manners will, sooner or later,
follow a " reverence for Turkey carpets and ormolu."

There is a large public library, and a well-stored museum,
in the city. The latter is open twice a week, and both are
much frequented by the inhabitants.

One of the most interesting sights to be witnessed in Rio
is a funeral, particularly of one of the wealthier classes ; for
noverty, here as elsewhere, is rarely troubled with ceremony.
The body of the humble laborer or artisan is carried to the
Misericordia; a hasty prayer is said, a little lime sprinkled
over his decaying remains, and he is thrown into a trench
with some half-a-dozen others of the same stamp, and left to
his long sleep, — while his neighbor of distinction, is borne
to his last resting-place, attended with all the pageantry of
woe. His body is wrapped in satin robes, and his coffin is
decorated with a scarlet pall ornamented with silver lace and
fringe. The latter is placed on a black hearse, overhung with
long nodding plumes, and drawn by mules in rich trappings,
sometimes covered with silver hells. The driver wears a
cocked hat, trimmed with lace, and adorned with a black

1838.] FUNERALS AND AMUSEMENTS. 47

plume. The hearse is preceded by altar-boys in their
church dresses, and surrounded by the black servants of the
deceased, all bearing lighted wax candles. Arrived at the
church, or chapel, where the services are to be performed,
the coffin is temporarily deposited near the altar, and the
friends and relatives arrange themselves along the aisles.
All the spectators having been furnished with lighted tapers,
the priests enter from the sacristy . arrayed in their rich
sacerdotal vestments. Clouds of odorous smoke are emitted
from the swinging gold and silver censers, and mass and the
funeral rites are said from splendidly illuminated service-
books. This done, the pall is removed, the coffin opened,
and holy water thrown over the dead, after which the body
is taken to the place of interment.

A favorite burial-place is the Campo Santo, or cemetery,
near the Imperial chapel. This is an amphitheatre, with
high walls in which the vaults are built, surrounding a
flower-garden. The coffins are deposited in niches just large
enough for their admission, which are closed up with mason-
work.

Notwithstanding their reserve on ordinary occasions, the
citizens of Rio Janeiro are fond of amusements. There are
three theatres in the city, all of which are well attended.
Hunting, riding and fishing, are favorite pastimes. White-
jacket balls, so called from the fact that the gentlemen who
attend them appear in white jackets and trowsers, and the
ladies in white dresses, without ornaments or jewelry, are
held monthly at Praya Grande ; and similar entertainments
are frequently given at Gloria Botofogo, and other small
towns in the neighborhood of the capital.

(6.) The great excess of the slave over the white popula-
tion in Rio Janeiro, is soon noticed by the stranger. The
former are nearly five times more numerous than the latter.
In the city, burdens are carried almost exclusively by slaves,
and scores of them may be seen at all hours of the day,
bearing their water buckets, or staggering under packages
of hides or bags of coffee. They usually go in gangs of

48 SLAVES AND SLAVERY. [J 838.

from twelve to thirty, sometimes yoked together with heavy
necklaces of iron and attended by a driver, and at others
headed by a leader, one of their own number, who carries a
small tin rattle, filled with stones, with which he keeps time.
They move along at a slow trot humming a monotonous
refrain, the words of which are often changed, though the
sound is rarely varied. Many masters rely solely upon the
income derived from the earnings of their slaves, who are
required to pay over from twenty-five to fifty cents, according
to their ability, every evening. If they are so fortunate as
to earn more during the day, the surplus is their own ; but
if they fail to produce the prescribed amount, they are
severely whipped. The females who are not employed as
house servants, work at millinery, or other light handicrafts.

Those slaves that carry burdens in the streets, or work in
the fields, are poorly fed and scantily clothed, scarcely ever
wearing anything more than a slight covering about the
loins. Unlike the owners of slaves in most civilized coun-
tries, the Brazilians manifest but little feeling for their
servants. When they become worn out, or seriously
diseased, they are generally turned into the world, without
compunction, and left to die unfriended and alone.

In 1830, the slave trade was prohibited ; but from seven
to ten thousand blacks are now imported, annually, in defi-
ance of the law. Pains are taken, however, to prevent their
increase. The two sexes are usually locked up at night in
different apartments, and all intercourse between them is
prevented as far as possible.

(7.) If within the city of Rio, the eye is pained by the
constant recurrence of stone and mortar — very few of the
houses having either yards or gardens — ample atonement is
made for this defect in the suburbs and environs. Here all
is bright and beautiful. A superabundant vegetation, flowers
of the gayest colors, gardens filled with fruit trees and choice
shrubby plants, and wide-spreading groves of tamarinds,
oranges and bananas, extend to the foot of the distant moun-
tains. But the delightful qui/,tas, or country residences,

1838.] THE SUBURBS OF RIO. 4.9

half hidden by thick screens of mangrove bushes, or peeping
out from behind hedges of laurels and myrtles, or rows of
quaintly clipped arbor vitas, constitute the chief attraction
as you progress towards the interior. There are, likewise,
fields of corn and sugar cane in the champaign country, and
on the slopes of the hills are the coffee plantations, present-
ing, in the season, a constant succession of ephemeral white
blossoms. Wild roses, tufts of sweet scented marjoram, and
different varieties of cacti, spring up by the wayside, and,
ever and anon,

" The white Cainella rears
Its innocent and tranquil eye."

Further on, are bosky dingles and leafy coverts, from
whence the shrill chirp of the cicada is heard long after the
dense forests that limit the view in the west are overspread
with the sober hue of the passing day.

(8.) Pedro Alvares Cabral is generally regarded as the
discoverer of Brazil. He visited the country in 1500, when
on his way to the East Indies, where he had been sent with
a fleet by King Emanuel, of Portugal. Previous to this
time, however, a Spanish mariner, by the name of Lepe, had
penetrated as far south as the Brazilian strand, and two other
Castilian navigators had landed and taken formal possession
of the territory for the crown of Castile, — but the claims of
Spain were subsequently relinquished by the treaty of
Tordesillas. Cabral first gave it the name of Santa Cruz,
afterwards changed, by his sovereign, to Brazil, in allusion
to the Brazil-wood found in the country, which, in turn,
derived its name from the Portuguese braza, a live coal or
fire, referring to the brilliant red color of this important
dyeing material.

For several years after its separation from Portugal, Brazil
was subject to internal political dissensions and commotions ;
but since the abdication of Pedro I, in 1831, it has been
tolerably quiet, and has steadily improved in commerce and
advanced in refinement. The government is a limited mon«

50 BRAZILIAN EMPIRE. [1838.

archy, with a sovereign styled an Emperor. The legislative
power is vested in two houses — the Senate, and the Chamber
of Deputies. The people seem to be well satisfied with their
form of government, but there exists a very friendly feeling
towards the United States and their institutions, which it
is for the pecuniary interest of both countries sedulously tf
cultivate.

Brazil is not wanting in the elements of greatness. She
embraces within her boundaries a vast area of territory —
over three million square miles — and her soil is highly fertile
and productive. Nature has projected almost everything
that belongs to her on a magnificent scale : she has four
thousand miles of sea coast ; her plains and valleys are vast
and extensive, and her rivers* and mountains grand and
imposing. Her population is computed to be five millions.
About one fourth are whites, who chiefly occupy the narrow
strip along the Atlantic and the province of JMinas Geraes;
and the remainder are negroes, mulattoes, and Indians.
Many of the savage tribes in the interior, who live remote
from the white settlements and mission establishments, are
exceedingly ferocious.

Few countries surpass Brazil in the richness of her Flora,
and her forests are truly magnificent; — although the second
growth is generally thickly matted with the bamboo that
furnishes the material for the huts of the half-civilized
Indians, which are covered with thatches of palm, in their
primeval state they are comparatively free from underbrush;
and the unsightly daddocks, which so often mar the beauty
of northern scenery, are rarely encountered. Cedars, as
stately as those which, in ancient days, shaded the brow of
unt Lebanon, rear their giant limbs towards the sky.
Oaks, of various fantastic forms, lofty palms and csesalpinias,
\\ i Le spreading mangos and tall and slender oecropias, are
mingled with sycamores, myrtles and acacias, — with the

* Steamboats can ascend the Amazon, and its main tributary near its source,
the Ucayali, to the mouth of the Rio Tambo, or Apiirimac, nearly four thousand
miles above Para.

1S38.J PRODUCTS OF THE COUNTRY. 51

juvia,* the cassada, the mahogany, and the macaw tree. In
many sections of the country, and particularly on the upper
waters of the Amazon, there are miniature forests, or groves,
of cacao, of surpassing beauty.

Besides the rich cabinet and dye-woods found in the
Brazilian forests, the finest timber for ship-building is also
obtained in abundance. Excellent cordage resisting the
action of water, is manufactured of the fibres of the palm
tree. From the nuts, or seeds, of the cacao, the preparations
known as cocoa and chocolate, are made ; this tree, sometimes
called the chocolate-tree, is a species of theobroma, growing
about twenty feet high, and bearing oval and pointed pods,
in which are the numerous seeds imbedded in a white, pithy
substance. The mango produces a fruit as large as an
orange, and resembling the egg plant in shape ; it has a thick
outer rind, beneath which is the fruit, of a fine golden color,
surrounding a pit two inches long, to which it adheres, and
possessing the mingled flavor of pine-apple and spruce.

The agave, here called furcrcea, from its long furcated
leaves, attains its highest state of perfection in this climate.
Prominent among the other plants and shrubs, are the nu-
merous varieties of the orchis tribe, with their odorous and
beautiful flowers, the vochysia and its gorgeous yellow blos-
soms, the cupheas with their clusters of lilac and purple, the
lobelias and their long blue spikes, the towering organum,
the anil, or indigo plant, the vanilla, the sarsaparilla, and the
coffee-tree. Until of late years, the indigo plant was not
very extensively cultivated in Brazil: it is usually planted
towards the latter part of March, twelve pounds of seed
being allotted to the acre, and if the season is favorable, it
will be ready to cut by the first of July. The maturity of
the plant, is indicated by the bursting forth of the flower-
buds, and the expansion of the blossoms. Two croppings are
taken during the year. The indigo is extracted by steeping
the dried leaves and stems, or by allowing them to ferment
when fresh ; the former process being considered the most

* The Brazil nut is the fruit of the Juvia.

52 COFFEE, AND OTHER PRODUCTIONS. [1838.

advantageous. A liquor is obtained, by either mode, which
is churned or agitated .till the dye begins to granulate ; the
flakes are then permitted to settle, the remaining liquor is
drawn off. and the indigo is drained in bags, and dried in
boxes.

One of the chief staples of Brazil is obtained from the
coffee-bush. This shrub, In its natural state, rises to the
height of fifteen or twenty feet, but, when cultivated, it is
kept down by pruning, to five or six feet, for the greater con-
venience thus afforded of gathering the fruit. The main
stem is upright, and has a light brown bark ; the branches
shoot out horizontally and opposite, crossing each other at
every joint, and forming a sort of pyramid ; the flowers,
which are of a pure white color, like those of the Spanish
jasmine, grow in clusters, at the roots of the leaves, along
the branches. The flowers soon fade, and are replaced by a
fruit resembling a cherry, which contains a yellow glairy
fluid enveloping two seeds or coffee berries. The seeds are
glued together, and each is surrounded by a peculiar coria-
ceous membrane. All along the Atlantic coast of Brazil,
there are extensive plantations of coffee, the culture of which
is said to be highly profitable. When the cherry-looking fruit
assumes a deep red color, it is gathered, and passed between
two wooden revolving rollers, and a third fixed one, from
which it falls upon a sieve that separates the pulp from the
beans. The latter are then steeped for a night in water,
carefully washed in the morning, and afterwards dried in the
sun. They are now detached from the coriaceous husk sur-
rounding them, by a wooden edge wheel turned vertically by
a horse or mule, and the membranes are subsequently sepa-
rated from the berries by a winnowing machine. The final
process consists in spreading the coffee upon mats or tables,
picking it clean, and packing in bags.

Sugar cane grows thriftily in the low grounds and interval
lands, and all the tropical fruits are also produced ; in the
interior, on the more elevated localities, where the vegetation
begins to creep up the sides of the mountains, the shrubs

1838.] BIRDS AND ANIMALS. 53

and fruit trees natural to colder climates are met with in
great variety.

The markets in the Brazilian towns are plentifully sup-
plied with beef, fish and poultry, and vegetables of all kinds
are sold in the streets. The principal articles of food, how-
ever, especially in the country, are came seca, or dried beef,
and farina, a -preparation of the manihot.

It is not only for their valuable timber that the forests of
Brazil are celebrated. Numerous species of parasites and
creepers abound, — bromelias, bignonias, honeysuckles, and
mistletoes, — which, extending their long sprays from tree to
tree, from limb to limb, like the cordage of a ship, form leafy
coverts that afford a shelter from the oppressive heat of the
equatorial sun, to the brute denizens of these vast woodland
solitudes. Birds displaying in their plumage all the bril-
liancy and splendor possible to combine from gold and scarlet,
purple and emerald ; fierce and ravenous beasts, chatter-
ing monkeys, and huge scaly serpents and alligators, fre-
quent these dark and shady retreats. Conspicuous among
the birds, is the couroucoo, whose plumage is purple, green,
and gold, beautifully blended together ; the cephaloptem,
which has a singular tuft on its head, like a parasol ; the
aicurus, whose head is variegated with yellow, red and vio-
let, its body green, the tips of its wings red, and its long tail
yellow ; the mocking-bird, famous for its unrivalled strains
of richest melody ; the witwall, or golden oriole, whose
swinging nest, depending from the loftiest tree, sways to and
fro with every breeze ; the gay-coated king fisher ; the scarlet
macaw ; the lustrous jacamar ; the guara, of a vivid red
color ; the cotinga ; and the many-tinted paroquet. Among
the beasts, are the jaguar, or ounce of Brazil ; the puma ;
the tapir ; the cabial ; the ant-eater ; the paca, which re-
sembles the guinea-pig ; and the armadillo, called taton by
the natives. Of the monkeys there are upwards of twenty
different species, varying in color and size, from the acari,
or scarlet monkey, to the silky tamarin.

In the interior of Brazil, west of the Araguay river, and

54 mines. L '1838

south of the Acaray mountains, there are extensive plains,
wooded near the streams, but elsewhere covered with rank
grass. These grassy plains are called llanos, or pampas ;
countless herds of wild horses and cattle roam over them at
will, unchecked and unpursued, save by the guachos, or
herdsmen, who spend most of -their time upon horseback,
armed with the knife and lasso. Immense numbers of cat-
tle are annually taken by them and slaughtered, chiefly for
their hides and horns, though the hams, and sometimes other
portions of the carcass, are smoked or jerked. After being
cured, the hides are bound up in packages, for exportation,
one of which is called a last, and contains twelve dozen.

(9.) Not more famous were the pearls of Ormuz, or the
diamonds of Golconda, than, in former days, was the mine-
ral wealth of Brazil. This may be said to have been meas-
urably exhausted, yet the annual products of the mines and
diamond washings, at this time, are by no means inconsider-
able. The first discovery of gold was made in 1682, at Ca-
lapreta, in the sands of the Mandi, a tributary of the Rio
Dolce. Since that time it has been found almost everywhere
in the streams and ravines at the foot of the Brazilian Andes,
from the fifth to the thirtieth degree of southern latitude.
The most productive mines are near Villa Rica, in the sub-
urbs of the village of Cocaes : a remarkable example is
here presented, of the existence of this mineral among the
primitive strata, disseminated in small grains, spangles and
crystals ; great quantities of native gold, in spangles, being
obtained from beds of granular quartz, or micaceous specu-
lar iron. There are, also, many valuable mines in the prov-
ince of Minas Gerae's, where the metal is found in veins, in
beds, and in grains, among the alluvial loams ; and there
are washings yielding handsome profits, on the eastern slope
of the Cordilleras, in the upper valley of the Amazon.

From 1790 to 1802, over fifteen thousand pounds, avoir-
dupois, of gold, were annually taken from Brazil to Europe ;
but the yearly product is now estimated at only two thou-

1838.] .MAMOND WASHINGS. 55

pan J eight hundred pounds, of the value of one million ster-
ling.

The matrix, or original repository, of the diamond of Bra-
zil, is brown iron ore, occurring in beds of slaty quartzose
micaceous iron ore. or composed of iron-glance and magnetic
iron ore. The diamond mines were originally discovered in
1728, in the district of Serro-do-Frio. The most celebrated
mine is that of Mandanga, north of Rio Janeiro, on the Jigi-
tonhonha. The river, which is from three to nine feet deep,
is made nearly dry, by drawing the water off with sluices at cer-
tain seasons : and the diamond gravel, here called cascalho, is
removed from the bed of the stream, to be washed elsewhere
at leisure. The gravel is always collected in the dry season,
and washed during the rainy. For the latter purpose, a stream
of water is admitted into a number of boxes containing the
cascafho, beneath an oblong shed. Attached to each box is
a negro washer, and there are inspectors placed at regular
distances, on elevated stools. Great precautions are taken to
prevent the concealment of the diamonds by the washers,
and when one is discovered, the finder is required to rise up
and exhibit it. When the negro is so fortunate, which very
rarely happens, as to discover a gem weighing seventeen and
a half carats,* he recovers his liberty. The earth of the
bottom lands on either side is as rich in diamonds as that in
the channel of the river. All the diamonds found in the dis
trict of Serro-do-Frio, are deposited, monthly, in the treasury
at Tejuco. The amount thus delivered, from 1801 to 1806,
has been estimated at about eighteen or nineteen thousand
carats, annually.

There are fine mines of diamonds on the Rio Pardo, and
at Tocaya, in the district of Minas Novas, near the confluence
of the Jigitonhonha and the Rio Grande. The largest dia-
monds, however, obtained in Brazil, are found in the cantons
of India and Abaite.

In addition to these great mineral treasures, there are

* A diamond of that size is worth £2400 sterling, not far from $10,000, fed-
eral currency.

56 COMMERCE. [1838.

mines of silver and platinum in various parts of the country.
In the canton of Abaite, in the province of Minas Geraes,
there are rich lead mines, and a fine mine of antimony has
been opened near Sahara in the same province. Iron is like-
wise found in Minas Geraes, at Gaspar-Saarez, and there are
extensive iron mines and furnaces in the captainry, or prov-
ince, of St. Paul.

(10.) The commerce of Brazil is rapidly increasing and
extending. Most of her trade, however, is carried on through
the vessels of other nations, although she has a very respect-
able commercial maiine. The imports amount to about
twenty-five millions ol dollars annually, and the exports or-
dinarily exceed that sum. Coffee is the principal article
exported from the central provinces; upwards of one hundred
and thirty-five million pounds being shipped every year, prin-
cipally from Rio Janeiro and its great rival, San Salvador,
or Bahia, on the Bay of All Saints. From the northern
provinces, sugar, cotton and tobacco, are exported through
the ports of Pernambuco,* Maranham, and Para. The best
caoutchouc, also, is exported from Para, in large quantities ■
it is extracted from the siphonia cahuca, or sip/iouiaelastica,
which is found in other parts of South America, as well as
in Brazil, although it is nowhere so valuable as in the vicin-
ity of Para. Incisions are made into the tree, through the
bark, in several places, from which a milky juice, of a pale yel-
low color, and having the consistence of cream, is discharged ;
this is spread upon clay moulds, and dried in the sun, or by
the smoke of a fire. The latter process, however, blackens
the gum. Of late years, the juice has been extensively ex-
ported ; but it is generally shipped in a concrete state. It is
better known among us by the names of gum elastic, and
india rubber, than by its appropriate one of caoutchouc.

Hides, tallow and horns, are the chief products of tho

* A large portion of the population of Pernambuco are foreigners, who are not
very warmly attached to the government. Frequent emcutes and disturbances
have taken place — one occurring as late as January, 1819, — which have been
with difficulty suppressed by the government troops.

1S39.] TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 57

southern provinces of Brazil. The most important seaport
town in this section of the Empire, is Rio Grande.

To the United States, the trade of Brazil is of considera-
ble moment, as a ready market is afforded in the latter for
a portion of our surplus agricultural products ; but it is more
than probable that she is the greater gainer of the two, —
since our imports from Brazil, during the year ending in
June, 1847, amounted to over seven million dollars, while
our exports were a little short of three millions.

(11.) In consequence of the unseaworthy condition of the
Peacock, and the long time required to fit her for continuing
the cruise, the squadron was detained at Rio for several
weeks. About the middle of December, the Relief was
dispatched to Orange Harbor, to cut wood for the use of the
other vessels, and on the 6th of January following, the
remainder of the fleet dropped down the harbor of Rio and
stood out to sea, directing their course towards the same
place of destination.

3*

CHAPTER III.

(1.) The Pamperos— (2.) The Rio Negro. Guachos. El Carmen.— (3.) Bue-
nos Ayres. Population and Resources. Lagunas de Salinas.— (4.) Indian
Tribes.— (5.) Alarm at El Carmen— (6.) Tierra del Fuego. Straits of Le
Maire and Magellan. Cape Horn.— (7.) Arrival at Orange Harbor.

(1.) South of the thirtieth degree of north latitude, strong
westerly gales prevail for a greater part of the year, which
frequently terminate in severe pamperos, or hurricanes, the
effects of which are often experienced far out at sea. These
are supposed to be occasioned by the vast llafios, or grassy
plains, in the valley of the La Plata, which disturb the
equilibrium of the atmosphere. The currents of air here
collected, being walled in on the west by the giant barriers
of the Andes, and finding little or no resistance on the east,
rush forth in the latter direction, either skimming softly and
* gently over the bosom of the Atlantic, or plunging and dash-
ing on like the frightened courser.

(2.) Favored by propitious, though light, and somewhat
variable winds, the Exploring Squadron held on their way
to the south. On the 25th of January, 1839, they again
approached the coast of South America, at the mouth- of
the Rio Negro, the southern boundary of Buenos Ayres, or,
as it is now called, the Argentine Republic. The coast
in the vicinity of the river, is low and barren ; consisting
of a succession of sand hdls and downs covered with a dry
and sickly vegetation, where the stunted shrubs that break
the monotony of the landscape, rarely rise to the dignity
of tree-hood,

" And shrivelled herbs on withering stems decay."

Further inland, there are immense pampas, over which roam

1839.] guachos. 59

countless herds of horses and cattle. The inhabitants, who
are principally of mixed Spanish and Indian descent, are
employed, for the most part, in herding, and other occupa-
tions incident thereto. The costume of the guachos, or
herdsmen, is strikingly picturesque ; and it is shown to full
advantage, when the wearer is mounted, with the knife in
his girdle and the lasso at his saddle bow, pressing forward
in hot pursuit after the lusty bullock, flying for dear life,
over the broad grassy plain. It usually consists of a red,
or party-colored shirt, striped or plaided ; white, Cossack
drawers, fringed at the bottom of the leg, which are called
calzoons, or calzoncillas ; wide, loose trowsers, of scarlet
cloth ; riding boots, fitting tight to the foot and leg, of un-
tanned horse hide ; a gay sash ; and a conical cap, fiery red,
with a large tassel dangling at the end. Thus arrayed, with
his swart countenance, dark mustachios, and keen penetra-
ting eyes, the guacho is either formidable, or bizarre, accord-
ing to the circumstances under which he makes his first
appearance in the presence of a stranger.

Twenty miles above the mouth of the Rio Negro, on the
northern bank of the stream, is El Carmen, a small town
containing about five hundred inhabitants. This is a convict
settlement, under the authority of a governor general, and
there are usually two or three hundred soldiers stationed
here. The estancias, or residences, of the better and more
prosperous inhabitants, consist of a dwelling house made of
adobe bricks,* divided into two or three compartments, with-
out floor, ceiling, inner doors, or furniture, except a few
rough benches and stools ; outhouses for the horses and
slaves, also built of adobes ; and a caral for the cattle — a
circular inclosure surrounded by a palisade fence, constructe 1
of pules from four to six inches in diameter, and twenty or
thirty feet high. The converted Indians, who collect around
the white setflements, and are called Indios Mansos, live in
rudelv fashioned huts, or toklos.

Including the population of El Carmen, there are not

* Bricks baked in the sun.

60 BUENOS AYRES. [1839.

far from three thousand inhabitants embracod within the
limits of the settlement on the Rio Negro. The river is only
one third of a mile wide, but it is navigable for boats to Chi-
cula, two hundred miles from its mouth.

(3.) When Buenos Ayres first achieved her independence,
she was connected with Paraguay and Uruguay, and the
confederation assumed the name of the United Provinces of
South America, afterwards changed to United Provinces
of La Plata. Difficulties and contentions, artfully promoted
by the government of Brazil, followed the separation from
the mother country ; and after a severe and bloody struggle, in
1813, Paraguay became independent of the confederacy, and
established a distinct government. • Shortly after this, Brazil
laid claim to Uruguay ; another fierce and protracted contest
ensued, which was finally terminated, in 1828, by the erec-
tion of the disputed territory into an independent state.
Since that time, the remaining portion of the confederacy has
been known as Buenos Ayres, and, latterly, as the Argentine
Republic* Harmony and tranquillity, however, have not
generally prevailed in the country. Internal dissensions
have been fomented by the intrigues of Brazil and the mo-
narchical governments of Europe; and international difficul-
ties have been occasioned by the attempt of Buenos Ayres
to enforce her right to the sole navigation of the La Plata —
a right which would probably have never been invaded, or
questioned, had she been as great and powerful, as she is
weak and humble. England, France, and Brazil, have
united to oppress her ; and at the time of the visit of the Ex-
ploring Squadron, her ports were blockaded by a French fleet.

Buenos Ayres contains about two million inhabitants, scat-
tered over a territory nine hundred thousand square miles
in extent. Its capital is Buenos Ayres, which contains near
eighty thousand inhabitants, and is pleasantly situated on

* The term Argentine Republic, (nilvcr republic.) was. no doubt adopted as
being expressive of the mineral character of the soil ; but it is hardly more ap-
propriate, and is certainly less beautiful than the former name of Buenos Ayres,
'pleasant brceze6.)

1839.] CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 61

the southern shore of the majestic Rio de la Plata — the river
of silver. The manners and customs of the inhabitants,
and the style of building, do not differ very essentially from
those at Rio Janeiro. In the interior, there are several other
towns of importance. Mendoza, containing twenty thousand
inhabitants, and San Juan, about one third smaller, are sit-
uated near the great passes through the Andes. Cordova
and Tucuman are important trading towns, and Salta, on the
Rio Salado is a celebrated market for mules.

The climate of the country is delightful ; the heavens are
serene ; the atmosphere is soft and refreshing, and remark-
able for its transparent purity. In the southern provinces
the air is so dry and pure, at certain seasons, that fresh meat
will keep for a long time without becoming tainted.

Grain, fruit and vegetables, are raised with comparatively
little labor, and the soil is exceedingly fertile, with the excep-
tion of a narrow strip of sandy barren land along the coast,
like that near the mouth of the Rio Negro. But the inhabi-
tants seem generally disinclined to till the ground, and their
whole time and attention are directed to raising horses,
mules and cattle. Of these they have the finest breeds in
South America, and the mules exhibited every year at Salta,
are unsurpassed in the world. The prices are quite moderate.
Bullocks are sold at from five to ten dollars per head, accord-
ing to age ; and horses and mules, when broken to the saddle,
at from twelve to fifteen dollars. Buenos Ayres is not de-
ficient in mineral stores ; she has valuable mines of gold and
silver on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from which over
four million pounds sterling of the former metal, and twenty-
seven millions of the latter, were obtained, from 1790 to
1830 ; but, after all, the real, substantial wealth of the
country, consists in the flocks and herds that feed upon the
broad plains irrigated by the tributaries of the La Plata.
Numbers of horses and mules are driven over the mountains
to Chili, and quantities of hides, beef, tallow, horns and
bones, are annually exported.

Salt is also an important product. North of the Colorado

62 LAGUNAS DE SALINAS. [1839

and between that river and the Rio Negro, there are numer-
ous salt lakes — lagunas de salinas — upon which the salt
collects in incrustations. It is obtained in great quantities
after a severe rain, when the soil, which seems to be highly
impregnated, has been the most thoroughly disturbed. The
water soon evaporates, and the white salt, perfectly pure,
and finely crystallized, appears in its stead. It is sold on
the Colorado and Rio Negro, for twenty cents per bushel. •

On the right bank of the Paraguay, a small plant is found,
called matte, which is used as a substitute for tea. It is
sometimes called Paraguay tea. Sarsaparilla and vanilla
likewise abound in the country.

Most of the animals seen in Brazil exist in Buenos Ayres.
There are deer in abundance, in the neighborhood of the salt
lakes ; ostriches are quite common on the prairies ; tapirs,
cabials, and other species of the cavy genus, frequent the
grassy hummocks on the banks of the streams ; and ducks,
partridges, pheasants, cassowaries, and wild geese, gratify,
alike, the ambition of the sportsman, and the appetite of the
epicure. The guanaco, an animal belonging to the same
genus with the llama, is also frequently seen ; and in the
northern section of the country there is a very pretty species
of hare, called tapeti. Porcupines and armadillos a , found
in every thicket.

(4.) Ever since the lirst settlement of Buenos Ayres, the
white population have been more or less annoyed by the
savage Indian tribes of the interior, — the off-shoots of the
great Araucanian family, whose descendants still occupy the
southern part of Chili. North of the Colorado are the Ran-
gueles Indians ; between that river and the Rio Negro, are
the Pehuenches ; and on its southern bank are the Tehuili-
ches, or Patagonia ns, who are said, though on doubtful au-
thority, to be of gigantic stature, but mild and inoffensive in
their dispositions. The most formidable enemies of the
whites, are the Chilenos Indians, who inhabit the mountain
fastnesses separating Chili from the pampas of Buenos
Ayres. The usual weapons of the Indians are a long lance,

1839.] ALARM AT EL CARMEN. 63

and the bolas, or balls; the latter consisting cf two leaden
balls attached to either end of a stout strip of hide, four feet
long ; this is grasped in the middle, whirled over the head a
few times, and then thrown with astonishing velocity and
precision. It rarely fails to disable the object aimed at, be it
man or beast.

(5.) Upon the appearance of the Exploring Squadron off
the coast, the inhabitants living on the Rio Negro, fancying
the French fleet was approaching to despoil them, became
much alarmed, and having hastily collected their cattle, fled
with them into the interior. The first party that landed
found the estancias deserted, and the fires smoldering: on
the rude hearth stones. The mistake was soon discovered,
however, and the people gradually ventured forth from their
places of concealment. Partial observations and surveys
were made, in order to prepare a correct chart of the river — a
work subsequently completed by Lieutenant Alden — and on
the 3d of February the squadron again got under way, and
proceeded on their voyage.

(6.) As they approached the southern extremity of the con-
tinent, flocks of speckled haglets, or cape pigeons, and alba-
trosses, were occasionally seen ; the moon began to wear
round further to the north, and the nights were rendered
gloomy by the lengthening shadows which it cast. On the
12th of February, the barometer fell rapidly, and heavy
squalls of rain, mingled with hail and sleet, followed. When
the day broke on the morning of the 13th, and the dense
mists that curtained the sky had lifted sufficiently to enable
objects to be distinguished, the gray cliffs of Staten Land
were discovered ; and, not long after, the barren rocks, and
snow-clad mountain peaks, of Tierra del Fuego — the land of
fire — loomed above the horizon, dark, bleak and desolate,
and showing no signs of vegetation, except, here and there, a
stunted shrub or tree.

The coast of Tierra del Fuego may well be called iron-
bound. It is composed of huge masses of trap rock,
traversed by red veins, indicating its volcanic origin, which

64 TIERRA DEL FUEGO. [1839.

rise abruptly to the height of one thousand or fifteen hundred
feet. Inland, there are mountains, many of them of a con-
ical shape, from four to five thousand feet above the sea level.
Tall isolated rocks, detached from the main shore, are
scattered along the coast, like giant sentinels on guard.
Numerous ravines intersect the wall of rocks behind them,
where the fierce blasts of the stormy Atlantic die away in
echoes, or howl the requiem of some gallant ship stranded
amid its foaming breakers. Even during the midsummer
months of this climate — January and February — the moun-
tains do not put off their mantle of snow ; but ever wear
the same cold and cheerless appearance.

Tierra del Fuego is separated from Patagonia on the
north, by the Straits of Magellan, named after the Portu-
guese navigator who discovered them. Vessels bound to the
Pacific can pass through the straits without difficulty, if
attended with favorable winds ; but, as there is a strong
current setting in from the Atlantic, it is hazardous to
attempt the passage, from the east, in a square rigged craft,
— though with steam vessels, or small fore-and-afters, there
is much less danger. Coming from the west, the passage
may be made with ease, and it is infinitely less hazardous
than to encounter the squalls, " catpaws," and icebergs,
which are the common accompaniments of a voyage around
the cape.

Between Staten Land and Tierra del Fuego, are the
Straits of Le Maire, which are about fifteen miles wide, and
something lrss than that in length. As a general thin?, it is
always best for a vessel intending to double the cape, to pass
through these straits ; it shortens the distance considerably,
and on all ordinary occasions there is not, the least danger.
Violent squalls sometimes issue from the ravines, but it is
easy to guard against them. Northwest winds prevail off
this coast, and with these the straits may be threaded in
three or four hours. This was the route taken by the
Exploring Squadron ; they passed through the straits on

1839.J CAPE HORN. 65

the 13th of February, with all their canvas spread. It was
a beautiful day, and the weather continued favorable till
they reached the cape.

" Be it fair or foul, rain or shine ;" —

in all weathers, at all times and seasons, Cape Horn is a
terror to the mariner ; and many and marvellous are the
tales of peril and danger spun in the forecastle, as this
dreaded promontory is approached, and the hoarse wail of
the beating surf that spends its fury upon its rocky sides, is
heard rising over the waters. In favorable weather, vessels
sail within a short distance of it, in perfect safety ; but when
the storm-king "holds high revel there," as wide a berth as
possible is given to this formidable breakwater which nature
has reared against the fury of the Atlantic*

The cape is situated in latitude 55° 58' south. It is
a conical, jagged peak, of trachytic rock, rising at the
southern end of Hermit Island. The latter is two or three
miles in length, and behind it there is a line of rocks extend-
ing towards the north. Between it and Tierra del Fuegb,
there are several long, high, and narrow islands, which are
covered with snow during the whole year. Cape Horn, how-
ever, is not the southernmost land in this quarter. The
Diego Ramirez Islands, a small cluster of sea-holms, on one
of which is False Cape Horn, are 34' further south.

(7.) On the 16th of February, the Squadron .passed the
"stormy cape," within a few miles of the shore; — most of
the vessels having their studding sails set on both sides —
and were soon lifted upon the long rolling swell of the
Pacific — " the summer sea." The 17th was cloudy and
nearly calm; and the day and night following were spent in
beating through the passage between Hermit Island and
False Cape Horn, and from thence into Nassau Bay, an

* Vessels are often compelled to go as high as the sixtieth degree of southern
latitude, in order to double the cape.

66 ARRIVAL AT ORANGE HARBOR. [1S39.

indentation of the southern coast of Tierra del Fuego.
Early in the morning of the lSth instant, the Squadron
came to anchor in Orange Harbor, on the western side of the
bay, but separated from it by Burnt Island, where they
found the Relief had arrived before them.

CHAPTER IV.

(1.) The Relief.— (2.) Patagonia. Soil and Climate.— (3.) Inhabitants. Mode
of Life and Occupations. Weapons. — (4.) Natives at Good Success Bay. —
(5.) Orange Harbor. Visit from the Natives. — (6.) Tierra del Fuego. De-
scription of the Country, and Products. — (7.) Animals and Birds. — (8.) The
Fuegians. Dress and Appearance. Degraded Condition. — (9.) Southern
Cruise. — (10.) Arrival of the Squadron at Valparaiso.

(1.) After leaving Rio de Janeiro, Captain Long proceeded
with the Relief to the coast of Patagonia, where, in accord-
ance with his instructions, he commenced running a line of
soundings, and making examinations of the shoals said to exist
in that quarter.

Like that of Tierra del Fuego, the Patagonian coast is
bold and rocky, but indented with frequent small bays or
harbors, which are scantily protected, however, against the
violence of the winds and waves. The Relief drew in to-
wards the land several times, sufficiently near to discover the
herds of guanacoes feeding on the slopes of the hills, and on
two occasions came to anchor ; but it was deemed hazardous
to remain so near the shore, and she accordingly hauled off'
where she would be sure of a wider berth in the event of a
storm.

(2.) Patagonia was discovered by Magellan in 1519. On
account of the insecurity of its harbors, and their being so
difficult and dangerous of access, no permanent white settle-
ment has yet been formed in the country. About the year
1779, a party of Spaniards established themselves at Port
St. Julian, in latitude 49° 10' S., and longitude 67° 40' W. 5
but the attempt to colonize this inhospitable region was speed-
ily abandoned. A few expeditions have been undertaken
into the interior, yet very little is known, beyond the coast

68 PATAGONIA. [1839

outline, in regard to it. The Andes here consist of but one
cordillera, the mean height of which is estimated at three
thousand feet, although there are many peaks opposite the
Archipelago of Chiloe, from five to six thousand feet high.
This mountain range divides the country into two unequal
parts ; the larger of them, by far, lying on the East. The
western coast is extremely abrupt and precipitous, and is
skirted with numerous irregularly shaped and rocky islands.
On the East, the surface of the country rises from the At-
lantic to the Andes, in a succession of terraces, all of which
are arid and sterile ; the upper soil being chiefly composed of
marine gravelly deposits. On the banks of the rivers, herb-
age and trees are occasionally found, but with this exception,
these terraces produce nothing but a coarse wiry grass, and
a small thorny shrub fit only for fuel. The general sterility
of East Patagonia is probably occasioned by the westerly
winds that prevail throughout most of the year.; the moisture
which they bring with them from the Pacific, is condensed
and precipitated in the mountains and their immediate vi-
cinity, and they consequently become quite dry. Almost the
only moisture, therefore, that is brought to this desert tract,
comes with the easterly winds, which are very rare. Near
the Andes, however, where the grateful moisture of the wes-
terly winds is precipitated, wheat, maize, beans, lentils,
pease, and other similar grains and vegetables, are raised.

The most prevalent mineral formations of East Patagonia,
are porphyry, basalt, sandstone, and a friable rock resembling
chalk. Organic remains are found of different kinds, and in
great numbers. There is an abundance of rodent mammals
in the country, but there are few varieties of larger animals.
Guanacoes are the most common, and are frequently seen in
droves numbering several hundred. The puma, the inveter-
ate enemy of the guanaco, and the fox, are the only other
wild quadrupeds worthy of mention. The principal birds
are the condor, the cassowary, and the rhea, or South Amer-
ican ostrich.

(3.) Until of late years, it was pretty generally supposed

1839.] ITS INHABITANTS. 69

that the Patagonian Indians were absolute giants. The ex-
aminations made by recent navigators have shown this im-
pression to be entirely erroneous* ; yet they are undoubtedly
the tallest people of whom we have any account, since the
average height of the men is full six feet. Their heads and
features are large, but their hands and feet are small, and
they have less muscular strength than their size would indi-
cate. Their dress adds much to the bulkiness of their ap-
pearance ; — it consists of a large mantle of guanaco skins
loosely gathered about the person, which it completely en-
velopes, hanging from the shoulders to the ankles ; and a kind
of drawers, or loose buskins, usually made of the same ma-
terial. Their complexions are a dark copper color ; their
hair is long, black, and coarse, and tied above the temples by
a fillet of braided or twisted sinews. Their foreheads are
low, and their cheek-bones prominent. They are fond of dis-
figuring their faces, and other parts of their bodies, with
paint ; and those who live remote from the white settlements
in Chili and on the Rio Negro, besmear themselves with clay,
coal, and soot.

The Patagonians live in tents formed of poles and skins.
They lead a nomadic life and subsist mainly on the flesh of
wild animals and birds. In the northern part of East Pata-
gonia, the inhabitants procure wild horses on the pampas,
which, when tamed, are ridden by both men and women.
Saddles, bridles, and similar accoutrements, as well as Span-
ish goods of various kinds, are obtained from Valdivia and
other places in South Chili. The arms of the Patagonian.
are a long tapering lance, a knife, and the bo/as, which con-
sist among them of two round stones, weighing about a pound
each, covered with leather, and attached to the thong or cord.
So expert are the natives in the use of this double-headed
shot, which, in its use and effects, resembles the ancient
sling, that they will hit a mark of the size of an English

* This idea originated with the Spaniards and Portuguese who first visited the
country, and was probably based on a comparison of their diminutive proportions
with the tall and bulky forms of the natives.

70 INTERVIEW WITH THE NATIVES. [1839

shilling, with both stones, at a distance of fifteen yards. It
is not customary to strike the guanaco or ostrich with them,
but they are thrown in such a manner that the cord is twisted
about the legs of the animal or bird, so as to prevent its run
ning away.

As may well be presumed, there is little semblance of law
or authority among the Patagonian Indians. They nominally
live under various petty chiefs, but the latter in reality pos-
sess no power except that of might, and, in point of fact,
every individual is his own master.

(4.) In passing through the straits of Le Maire, Captain
Long visited most of the harbors, and nearly two days were
spent in Good Success Bay, on the coast of Tierra del Fuego,
the best and largest of them all. While here, Captain Long,
accompanied by several officers, went ashore in three armed
boats, to hold communication with a party of natives, who
invited them to land by their cries and gestures. The natives
appeared friendly, and when the captain and his men landed,
they ran towards them, crying out, at the same time, —
" cuchillo ! cuchillo /" As this is the Spanish word for
knife, it was thought they were begging to be supplied with
that article ; but as they seemed to apply the term to every-
thing shown them, or rather continued its repetition almost
incessantly, it was found impossible to ascertain its real
meaning or application. In their dress and physiognomy
they resembled the Patagonians, and were supposed to belong
on the other side of the straits of Magellan ; they wore
guanaeo skins over their shoulders, and fillets were bound
around their heads. Some members of the party had san-
dals, also made of the gnanaco skin, on one foot. They were
provided with hows and arrows. — the latter having flint
heads; but they seemetl to depend principally on lish for
subsistence. All were exceedingly dirty, though well formed,
and most of them were troubled with a disease of the eye, —
occasioned, perhaps, by the dazzling reflection from the snow
during their long winters.

It was evident that they had had intercourse before with

1S39.] ARRIVAL AT ORANGE HARBOR. 71

the sailors of civilized nations, as many manufactured arti-
cles, which they could have obtained in no other way, were
found in their possession, and the report of fire-arms did not
intimidate them in the least. The hair on the tops of their
heads was cut short, and their faces were painted with a
kind of clay, like red ochre. They were particularly well
pleased with a looking glass and a string of glass beads
which were shown them. Although they attached great
value to their bows and arrows, they were willing to ex-
change them for a piece of iron hoop or a few rusty nails.

From Good Success Bay the Relief continued her course
towards Orange Harbor. On the way, she touched at New
Island ; no natives were seen here, but there were indications
of their having recently been on the island. On the 30th of
January, Captain Long cast anchor in Nassau Bay, and sub-
sequently entered Orange Harbor. Immediately after he got
his anchor down in the hay, a native canoe came alongside,
— in which were three men, one woman, and a child. Two
of the men came on board without hesitation. They were
found to differ in many respects from those seen at Good
Success Bay. They did not speak the same language; they
were not so tall in stature, nor so well-proportioned ; and
they were far more filthy and disgusting in their appearance.

(5.) Orange Harbor is decidedly the safest, and the most
spacious and convenient of all the harbors on the Fuegian
coast. Captain Cook anchored and refitted here previous to
his Antarctic cruise, as did also Captains King and Fitzroy
while engaged in their expeditions. It is surrounded by lofty
hills, intersected with numerous small inlets or coves, in
which boats can enter and obtain wood and water, which are
both abundant and of excellent quality.

Shortly after the arrival of the squadron at Orange Har-
bor, they were visited by the natives, — a most abject, ill—
shapen, and miserable race of beings. On one occasion, a
party consisting of five men and one woman, — the latter old
and ugly, but as strong and muscular as those of the other
sex, — approached one of the vessels in a frail and leaky

T2 TIERRA DEL FUEGO. [1S39.

canoe which required constant bailing to keep it afloat. But
one of the number — a young man not far from nineteen
years of age — could be induced to come on board. They
brought with them a number of spears, and a necklace of
shells, which they exchanged for pieces of cotton and an iron
hoop. In dress, language and appearance, they resembled
those at Nassau Bay. They were highly delighted with
music, and fond of mimicking everything they heard ; the
flute and guitar were played for their amusement, and they
endeavored to imitate the accompanying songs.

(6.) Tierra del Fuego properly includes the group of
islands lying off the southern extremity of South America,
and separated from it by the straits of Magellan ; but the
term is usually applied, by way of distinction, to the largest,
or main island, formerly called King Charles' South Land.
The eastern part of this island is low, with sloping plains
like those of Patagonia, though there is really no level land.
On the west side it is traversed, from north to south, by a
chain of mountains four thousand feet high. The island is
all mountainous, and appears to have been partially sub-
merged in the sea by some convulsion of nature, — by which
so many inlets and bays are occasioned where valleys would
otherwise have been. The surface at the foot of the hills is
covered with a thick bed of swampy peat. On the mountain
sides, reaching up to an elevation of twelve hundred feet,
there are dense forests ; the trees rise uniformly to the height
of forty or fifty feet, and generally incline towards the north-
east, in consequence of the prevailing southwestern winds.

The principal trees are beech, birch and willow. One
species of birch, the betula antarctica, has a stem from thirty
to forty-six inches in diameter. Winter's bark, (dry mis
winteri) first introduced as a medicine in 1579, was origi-
nally discovered here. In Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent
islands, hornblende is the most common rock, but slate is
abundant. Lava and other volcanic products were discov-
ered by Captain King, but nothing of the kind was found
during the limited, and necessarily imperfeot, reconnaissances

1839.] THE FUEGIANS. 73

of the American Exploring Squadron. The line of perpetual
snow descends as low as three thousand feet ; yet, notwith-
standing the unfriendliness of the climate, the scenery of the
island is in many respects grand and imposing. " There is
a degree of mysterious grandeur," says Mr. Darwin, in his
Journal of a Voyage round the World," in mountain behind
mountain, with the deep intervening valleys, all covered by
one thick, dusky mass of forest. The atmosphere, likewise,
in this climate, where gale succeeds gale, with rain, hail, and
sleet, seems blacker than anywhere else. In the Strait of
Magellan, looking due southward from Port Famine, the
distant channels between the mountains appeared from their
gloominess to lead beyond the confines of this world."

(7.) Guanacoes, wolves, foxes and otters, are the only wild
animals of importance found in Tierra del Fuego. Fish and
seals are quite numerous. Among the birds are the cape
pigeon, the petrel, and the albatross. Wild fowl, geese,
ducks, and plover, are also plenty. The cape pigeons are of
a white and lead color ; they fly in large flocks, and seem
much attached to each other ; their flesh is equal to that of
the American teal. The albatross resembles a goose, and its
feathers, down, and quills, are equally valuable ; its meat is
dark-colored but not unpalatable ; by sailors, it is considered
as a rara avis, indeed, from the fact that it has no gizzard,
— and many of them look upon it with the same abhorrence
with which the Mussulman regards pork.

(8.) The Fuegians are elevated by only a few degrees
above the brute creation. They have small low foreheads,
prominent brows, iliminutive eyes, large mouths, wide nos-
trils, thick lips, black lank hair, and long and slender arms.
Their bodies are large in comparison with their extremities,
but they are rarely over five feet in height. On the eastern
coast, the natives wear guanaco skins, and on the western,
seal skins. The central tribes have otter skins. Sometimes
a small scrap takes the place of a whole skin, and where this
is the case, or the skin is too small to protect the whole per-
son, it is laced across the breast by strings, and shifted from

4

74 MODE OF LIFE. [1839.

side to side, according as the wind blows. It is by no means

uncommon, however, to see them entirely naked. They ap-

ar stunted in their growth ; their dark copper colored skins

re filthy and greasy ; and their hideous faces are generally

laubed with ashes or paint. Their voices are discordant,

id their gestures, in conversation, animated and even vio-

:llt.

Their wigwams are sometimes built of the trunks of trees,
;irranged in a circle and leaning against each other at the
top, like a cone ; the interstices are chinked in with earth,
leaves, and wild grass. Another kind of wigwam is made
ot boughs or small branches bound together at the top with
sedge or twigs ; other branches are interlaced with these so
as to form wicker-work, and the whole is covered with grass,
peat or bark. They subsist almost wholly on fish, seals, sea-
eggs, and testacea. A few tasteless berries and fungi are the
only productions of the moist soil which they make use of to
satisfy hunger. The only habitable land is directly on the
coast, and in summer and winter, through the endless mists,
and storms, parties of them may be seen wandering along the
beach in quest of food. Their only mode of conveyance is a
canoe drawn through the water by the kelp, or propelled by
a rude paddle ; it is made of strips of bark sewed together,
and is usually about twenty-five feet long and three feet
wide. The bottom of the canoe is covered with a layer of
clay a foot thick, on which a fire is always kept burning.
Sea-eggs are obtained by diving, and small fish are caught
by a baited hair-line, without any hook. Larger fish are
speared. Shell-fish are picked from the rocks whenever it is
low water, be it night or day, in storm or sunshine.

Seasons of famine are frequent among the Fuegians, and
at such times they often kill and eat the old women, before
they devour their dogs. They are divided into different
tribes, and when at war they are also cannibals. It is rarely
the case that they object to any kind of food ; and if the car-
cass of a putrid whale is discovered, it is hailed as a special
blessing. Traces of superstition exist among them, and each

1839.J SOUTHERN CRUISE. 75

tribe has a conjuring doctor ; yet it has been found impossi-
ble clearly to ascertain his duties. They exhibit a dread of
some mysterious and invisible superior powers, but have no
definite idea of a future life. Bows and arrows, spears, and,
in the northern part of the island, the bolas of the Patago-
nians, are their only weapons. The arrow and spear heads
are made of bone, or iron where it can be procured. The
different tribes have no particular head or chief, nor any form
of government ; but they speak different dialects — all of
which have many affinities with the Araucanian — and reside
in different districts.

For three hundred years, notwithstanding they have been
frequently visited by navigators and the crews of whalers and
sealing vessels, the Fuegians have made little or no advance
in intelligence. According to Drake, they travelled in the
same canoe, and slept in the same wigwam, two hundred
and fifty years ago, which they now do. In some respects
they are even more sunken and degraded than the Aus-
tralians, who have generally been considered the lowest, in
the scale of humanity. Their skill and sagacity are like the
instinct of animals, and they manifest still less invention and
foresight in providing the means of comfort and subsistence.

(9.) On the 25th of February, Captain Wilkes left Orange
Harbor in the brig Porpoise, accompanied by the Sea Gull
under Lieutenant Johnson, for a short cruise in the Southern
Polar regions. Captain Hudson sailed on the same day with
the Peacock and the Flying-Fish — the latter in charge of
Lieutenant Walker — in the direction of Cook's Ne Plus
Ultra, under instructions to penetrate as far south of that
point as the season and other circumstances would permit.
Lieutenant Craven remained at Orange Harbor in command
of the Vincennes ; and the Relief was ordered to the straits
of Magellan, for scientific duty — the corps of scientific gentle-
men being temporarily transferred to that vessel.

The Sea Gull returned to Orange Harbor on the 22d of
March, having separated from her consort during the cruise,
and the Porpoise arrived on the 30th. No new discoveries

76 ICE AND ICEBERGS. L 1839.

of importance had been made. The weather had proved un-
favorable, and on penetrating as far south as the sixty-sixth
degree of southern latitude, Captain Wilkes found himself
surrounded on all sides by innumerable icebergs and field ice,
and was therefore obliged to retrace his course. While he
was absent from Orange Harbor, he visited the South Shet-
lands and Palmer's Land, but was only able to verify the
discoveries of former navigators.

Captain Hudson encountered the first icebergs on the 11th
of March, in latitude 63° 30' 8. and 80° W. longitude*
The Flying Fish separated from the Peacock in a gale, in
the early part of the cruise, but fell in with her again before
its termination. Captain Hudson ascended a little above the
sixty-eighth degree of southern latitude, and Lieutenant
Walker went as high as the seventieth degree, where his
further progress was impeded by impassable barriers of ice.
Both vessels came near being hemmed in by these frozen
bulwarks. The Flying Fish was once rescued from a most
perilous position by a fortunate breeze, and the Peacock, after
being enveloped for six days, from the 19th to the 25th of
March, in ice and icebergs, was with great difficulty worked
out into the open sea, through a dense fog, by carrying on all
her canvas. The decks and ri^srino- of the vessels were coated
with ice, and everything was dark, dreary and cheerless. If
there was a pause in the howling of the wind, it seemed to
bellow with increased fury when it again swept above the
wintry waste. If the leaden-colored clouds parted over head,
and the beautiful tints of blue sky were reflected in the water,
they could scarcely be admired, before the heavens were once
more overshadowed by that black and dismal pall which al-
most shut out the light of day.

As if to compensate for all this dreariness and gloom, sev-
eral splendid exhibitions of the aurora australist were wit-

* In the South Pacific, the Polar currents being very little interrupted by land,
deviate less from their general course than those in the northern hemisphere,
ind, consequently, carry icebergs nearer to the tropics than is usual north oi" the
Equator.

"|" The aurora austral is is the phenomenon in the southern hemisphere corre-
sponding to the aurora borealis in the northern.

1839. J SAILING OP THE SQUADRON. 77

nessed. The Magellan Clouds, the Zodiacal Light, and the
brilliant constellation of the Southern Cross, whose magic
beauties have so often been remarked and admired by trav-
ellers in the Polar regions, were seen in all their perfection.
Other luciform appearances, less striking, perhaps, but full
of interest and beauty, were likewise observed.

From these vast southern solitudes, where the sea-lion, the
petrel, the albatross and the penguin, are rarely disturbed in
their ice-bound retreats, Captain Hudson and Lieutenant
"Walker gladly turned the heads of their vessels to the north,
when they found that the season was so far advanced, that
nothing further could be gained by protracting their stay.

(10.) The Flying Fish sailed for Orange Harbor, where
she arrived on the 11th of April, and the Peacock shaped her
course for Valparaiso. On the 17th of April, orders were
issued to the squadron at Orange Harbor to get under way.
The Vincennes and Porpoise dropped down to Scapenham
Bay in the afternoon, when the wind being light and un-
favorable, they came to anchor. A heavy squall coming up,
they ran back into Orange Bay for a few hours. At daylight
on the 18th, a more propitious breeze finally wafted them
from those desolate regions, and launched them upon the
broad and comparatively peaceful bosom of the Pacific*
The south east trades are the favorite winds of this ocean,
but it was not until the Exploring Squadron had passed the
latitude of Chiloe, that they felt the genial influence of these
prosperous gales, which wafted them on far more rapidly than
before towards the Valley of Paradise.

Early in the morning of the 12th of May, they came in
sight of the coast of Chili, and not long after, the grand and
majestic peaks of the Andes were seen towering up in the
back ground. In a few days, the Vincennes and Porpoise
joined the Peacock in the harbor of Valparaiso. The Sea
Gull and Flying Fish were left at Orange Harbor to await
the return of the Relief from her cruise in the Straits of Ma-

* The Pacific received its name from Magellan, in consequence of the pros-
perous weather with which he was favored while navigating its surface.

78 ARRIVAL AT VALPARAISO. [1839.

gellan. That vessel, however, had been so long delayed that
it was thought best to sail direct to Valparaiso, where she
arrived in safety. The two schooners left Orange Harbor
on the 28th of April, but were separated in a gale, and the
Sea Gull probably foundered, as no tidings have ever been
heard of the vessel or crew. The Flying Fish reached Val-
paraiso on the 19th of May.

CHAPTER V.

(1.) Approach to the Chilian Coast. The Andes. — (2.) Valparaiso. Appear-
ance of the City. Principal Attractions. — (3.) Chili. Early History. Rev-
olutionary Struggles. War with Peru. — (4.) Santiago. Other Towns. —
(5.) Dress of the Chilefios. Manners and Customs. — (6.) Geological For-
mation of the Country. Productions. Zoology. — (7.) Commerce. — (8.) Mines.
— (9.) Departure from Valparaiso.

(1.) Few travellers approach the coast of Chili, or Chile,
without turning their eyes in the direction of the lofty crests
of the Andes, the giant vertebras of South America. On
entering the harbor of Valparaiso, fine glimpses are obtained,
in the northeast, of the peaks of the Great Cordillera ; though
the distance — from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
miles — at which they are situated, cannot be truly appreci-
ated till you ascend the hills overlooking the beach. These
peaks begin to be numerous in latitude 30° S., and increase
in number as the cordillera trends away to the south. The
principal one is Aconcagua, at least 23,200 feet high — an
elevation greater than that of Chimborazo — which is, at in-
tervals, an active volcano.

hi pleasant weather, — the general rule, rather than the
exception, in Chili, — the sunset view of the Andes, off the
coast, is remarkably beautiful and picturesque, probably more
so than at any other time of the day : — the soft, transparent
atmosphere ; the clear blue heavens ; the light fleecy clouds,
glowing with all the colors of the rainbow, sailing along th
pure depths of the sky, or floating around the rugged mon;
tain summits ; the purple hue of evening falling in the noo
and crevices, and the golden flash yet lingering on the bol-
locks and precipices, impart to it all the charms of roman
and enchantment, — and Fancy roams half bewildered, through

30 VIEW OF THE ANDES. [1839.

lordly castles and fairy palaces, glittering with all the wealth
of Ophir, sparkling with gems and precious stones, and
crowned with burnished domes supported on pillars of ivory
and gold, beneath which hang

" Pendant by subtle magic, many a row
Of starry lamps and blazing cressets, fe?
With Naphtha and Asphaltus."

But at early dawn, just before the sun peeps above the hor-
izon, when the morning light streams from the east through
every cleft and fissure, when Night still enshrouds the bases
of the mountains in her sable mantle, and the tops are tinged
with the maiden blushes of Aurora, the rough outlines are
more clearly distinguished, and, perhaps, a more powerful
impression of vastness, magnificence, and sublimity, is made
upon the mind of the beholder.

(2.) Were it not for its beautiful and matchless climate,
Valparaiso could boast of nothing that would entitle it to the
distinction implied by its name.* The country in its vicinity
is sterile and monotonous ; along the sea coast there extends
a range of steep round-topped hills, from fifteen to sixteen
hundred feet high, covered with a bright grayish red soil,
worn into numberless gulleys, in consequence of the slight
protection afforded by the dry and scorched turf scattered
about over it in small patches ; there are few or no trees
except half-withered cacti ; and the clumps of low stunted
bushes and brambles occasionally seen, do not go very far to-
wards relieving the dreary sameness of the landscape. In
the deep valleys, the vegetation is a little more abundant ;
and the plants and shrubs, — which possess, as in most dry
climates, peculiarly strong and pungent odors, and, when in
blossom, present greater liveliness and richness of color than
is usually met with, — are considerably more numerous.

Still, the view of the town from the anchorage is quite
pretty. It appears to be built in terraces, at the foot of the
range of hills flanking the coast. The houses are mostly con-

* The meaning of Valparaiso s — Vale, or Valley, of Paradise.

1839.] VALPARAISO. 81

structed of adobes, from one to two stories high, and sur-
mounted with heavy red tiles. They are for the most part
erected in a loose and straggling manner. All are plastered
on the outside, and whitewashed ; and when the level rays
of the declining sun are poured full upon the walls, they
glisten like burnished silver. A closer examination, how-
ever, destroys much of this pleasing and picturesque illusion.
On the north, the town stretches out on the revel sea shore,
in a long double row of houses, called the Almendral ; to-
wards the south, it rises in the direction of the hills, upon
which there are many neat cottages, with tasteful flowei
gardens. One of these eminences, Mount Alegre, rises ab-
ruptly from the centre of the city, and is chiefly occupied by
the residences of wealthy foreigners and merchants. The
main street is intersected by a number of quebrddas, or
gorges, running parallel to each other, and leading up which
there are narrow and inconvenient thoroughfares, with a few
houses built at intervals ; these streets are badly lighted, and
are very dangerous at night. The southern part of the town
is divided by two principal ravines, into three districts, to
which sailors have given the names of Fore Top, Main Top,
and Mizen Top.

Tlfe harbor, or bay of Valparaiso, is open to the north and
northwest ; but on the south and southwest, it is protected
by the small promontory of Punta de Coronilla, though the
shore on this side of the bay is steep and rocky, and the waves
dash against the heights with great fury. From the point,
the bay sweeps round to the northwest, in the form of a cres-
cent, having a sloping sandy beach whicli rises gradually to-
wards the hills. In entering the harbor from the south, there
is great danger, at times, of drifting upon the point, from the
sudden dying away of the wind. The holding ground being
of stiff clay, the anchorage is secure, except during the north-
erly gales, which, though far less frequent than those from
the opposite quarter, sometimes blow with terrible violence,
and often terminate in severe storms. The bay is protected
by three small forts ; the most strongly fortified is the castle

4*

82 FACILITIES FOR LANDING. [1839

of San Antonio, containing about a dozen guns, which stands
in the southern inlet of the bay ; el Castillo del Rosario,
which has six guns, is in the northern part of the town, and
the remaining fort, mounting five guns, in the southern.

Formerly, there was no facility for landing goods at Val-
paraiso, except by launches moored to the shore, across which
packages were carried on men's shoulders, or by boats ; but
a mole has been recently built at the most favorable point
for landing. This is considered perfectly safe, except during
the prevalence of north winds, when it is exceedingly danger-
ous to approach it, on account of the violence of the surf. A
wooden jetty stretches out into the sea about sixty paces,
which is frequently submerged by the waves, and has been
several times demolished. The harbor-master's boats, and
those belonging to men-of-war, land on the right side of the
jetty, and those of merchant vessels on the left. Small boats,
usually manned by two Indians, are always to be found near
the landing-place, ready to convey passengers to and fro the
vessels in the harbor. Whenever a stranger makes his ap-
pearance on the muele, or mole, he is sure to be greeted with
the importunate inquiry — Vdmos abordo, senor? (Going
aboard, sir?) — which sometimes gives place to, "Want a
boat? — want a boat ?" in English.

On reaching the shore, almost the first object that attracts
the attention is the motley crowd of Choloes, or country peo-
ple, dressed in their long coarse ponchos,* who congregate
here for the purpose of disposing of their wares. Passing
through the clamoring boatmen and jabbering peasantry, you
approach the custom-house, a large and fine building erected
on the mole. Near the custom-house is the exchange, a more
unpretending structure, but containing a spacious and elegant
reading-room well supplied with foreign newspapers. This is
the favorite resort of ship-masters and commercial travellers,

* The poncho is a long blanket, varying in color according to the taste of the
wearer, with a hole, or slit, in the middle, through which the head is thrust —
thus permitting the ends to hang down behind and before.

1S39.J PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 81

great numbers of whom are constantly to be seen at Val-
paraiso.

The other public buildings are a government house situate !
on the plaza, a small triangular space in one of the quebrada
In the vicinity of the plaza, are the principal church, an
the Dominican and Franciscan chapels ; and between it an !
the castle of San Antonio, is the arsenal, consisting of a
number of low buildings and sheds. About the middle of the
Almendral, are the ruins of the church and convent of La
Merced, destroyed by the great earthquake of 1822. There
are several monasteries in the city, but all wear a gloomy
and cheerless look. The churches are unusually plain and
simple ; they are neither distinguished for architectural
ornaments on the outside, nor for their decorations in the
.nterior.

For places of amusement, the inhabitants of Valparaiso
have a theatre poorly fitted up, and a chingdno, both of
which are open, and generally crowded, on Sunday evening.
The chingdno is a large amphitheatre, surrounded by apart-
ments, or booths, where liquors and refreshments are sold ;
it is much frequented by both sexes, particularly of the lower
classes, and one of its most attractive entertainments is a
lascivious dance, termed the samacueca, which is performed
by a young man and woman, on a stage, under an open
shed.

One of the most remarkable objects in the city, is the
moveable prison. This is a large covered wagon, resembling
those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. The door, at
which a guard is stationed, is at the back end ; inside, there
are plank bedsteads, like those in guard-houses, large enough
to accommodate eight or ten persons ; and in front is a small
apartment for cooking. A large number of these prisons may
be seen in the streets; they are drawn by the prisoners, who
are mostly employed in working on the roads and bridges.

There is a great plenty of taverns in Valparaiso, though
not much can be said in their favor. The best are kept by
Frenchmen, but these are incommodious and expensive.

84 POLICE OP THE CITY. [1839.

Want of cleanliness is the chief fault of all. The tables
are amply provided from a market, held in the pldza, always
well supplied with good meat, poultry, fish, bread, fruit, and
vegetables.

No one ever visits this town, of late years, without re-
marking the efficiency of the police established by Diego
Portales, formerly Minister of War and the' Interior. It
consists of two bodies, the vigilantes, or police proper, and
the serenos, or watchmen. The former are armed and uni-
formed, and patrol the streets on horseback ; the latter are
provided with swords alone, and go on foot. Each sereno
has his particular beat or district, and carries a small whistle,
which makes a loud and shrill noise. It is customary to call
the hours at night, and announce the state of the weather.
At ten o'clock the sereno commences with — Viva Chile !
viva Chile ! — las diez han dado claw y sereno ! (past ten
o'clock and a clear and fine night !) In the morning they
say, Viva Chile ! viva Chile ! — Ave Maria purissima — las
cuatro de la manana, y nublddo ! (past four o'clock in the
morning, and cloudy !) or, — la seis de la mandna, // lluvioso!
(past six o'clock in the morning, and rainy !) These calls
are uttered in a sort of tune, pitched to a high key, which is
rather pleasing than otherwise. If an earthquake takes place,
it is announced in the same manner by the sereno, as he goes
his round. Midnight brawls and murders were formerly quite
common, but they are now of very rare occurrence, and are
mainly confined to the southern quarter, the most abandoned
part of the town.

Valparaiso contains not far from thirty thousand inhabi-
tants, — a large proportion of whom are foreigners, from Ger-
many, England, France, and the United States, — and it is
annually increasing in extent and population. The old Span-
ish families are few in number, but they are remarkable for
the combined grace and dignity of their demeanor, the neat-
ness of their personal appearance, and the cleanliness and
tidiness of their dwellings. The main dependence of the
city is its commerce, and the avocations and tastes of the

J.839.] POPULATION. 85

inhabitants are, consequently, almost exclusively of a mer-
cantile character. They are hospitable and kind to strangers,
not more from interest than from impulse. With the influx
of so many foreigners, new customs have been introduced,
and those of the ancient Spanish residents are gradually dis-
appearing. Their costumes likewise are being supplanted
by French styles and fashions. That these changes have
taken place without serious disagreement or difficulty, is
probably owing to the intermarriage of the foreigners with
Spanish ladies. Now and then a genuine Castilian — one of
the old noblesse — may be found, who looks with mingled
emotions of contempt and abhorrence on these innovations ;
but the great majority have long since learned to regard them,
if not with love, at least without hatred. Until quite re-
cently, it was not customary for the ladies of Valparaiso to
wear either hats or head-dresses, even in the streets, — their
dark glossy ringlets being gathered into two plaits, and suf-
fered to hang down the back, sometimes nearly reaching the
ground, — but latterly bonnets have been introduced, and they
are becoming quite the fashion.

In point of morals, Valparaiso does, not compare favorably
with many other South American towns. The higher classes
are excessively fond of amusements, and those beneath them
in position imitate their example, though manifesting less
regard for the decencies of life, and substituting coarser en-
joyments for those of a more refined character. A great part
of the houses in the southern quarter of the city, are grog-
shops, brothels, and kindred places of resort ; at every step
you discover the wrinkles of cankering care and passion dis-
figuring the countenance of the chevalier d? Industrie, who
strives, in vain, to conceal his repulsive features under his
broad sombrero, — or start at the dark flashing eyes of the
courtesan, who gathers her gay crimson or green bayeta*
more closely about her half-exposed person, not from any
instinct of modesty, but rather to hide the dirty calico dress
beneath it.

* The baycta is a coarse baize shawl worn by women of the lower classes.

86 CEMETERIES. [1839

On a high hill overlooking the town, are the burial grounds
The principal one is divided by mud walls into two compart-
ments, one of which is used by Catholics, and the other is
appropriated to heretics. Near by is a charnel house full of
skulls and bones. Interments are conducted with very little
Care or attention. The graves are shallow excavations, in
which the dead are laid, with their heads to the west, often
without either coffin or shroud. A small quantity of earth
is then thrown in and beaten down with a billet of wood ;
not unfrequently half of this thin covering is blown off by the
wind in a few days, anl the decaying body exposed, wholly
or in part, to the sight. A rudely-fashioned cross placed at
the head of the grave, is, usually, the only designation em-
ployed. In the Protestant cemetery, which adjoins the for-
mer, there are neat marble slabs, and every other indication
of the respect paid by the living to the dead.

(3.) Previous to the Spanish conquest, Chili formed a part
of the possessions of the Peruvian Incas. In 1535, Almagro
invaded the country, under the orders of Pizarro ; and in
1540 it was overrun and subjugated, with the exception of
Araucania, by Valdivia. The first insurrectionary move-
ment looking towards a separation from the mother country,
was made in 1810, and terminated in 1814, when the prov-
ince was temporarily quieted. From that time till the year
1817, the disaffected inhabitants were overawed by the pres-
ence of a large body of royalist forces. But the tocsin of
liberty had not been sounded in vain ; its echoes continued
to reverberate among the fastnesses of the Andes, and to
awaken glad responses in the breasts of the true-hearted
patriots of Chili. In 1817, the banner of freedom was again
(lung to the winds, and after a bloody and obstinate engage-
ment on the plains of Chacabuco, in which General Mendoza,
at the head of the patriot army of four thousand men, de-
feated five thousand, the Spanish troops were expelled from
the country. The preliminary measures for forming an in-
dependent government were being taken, when a new and
increased force of royalists appeared in the field, under the

1839.] EARLY HISTORY OF CHILI. 87

command of General Osorio. This force was likewise
routed, at Maypu, on the 5th day of April, 1818, by the
Chilian troops under San Martin, O'Higgins, and other
patriot leaders. Still another effort was made by Spain to
regain her lost dominion, and a fifty-gun frigate, convoying
eleven transport ships, with twenty-five hundred men on
board, was ordered to Chili. This formidable armament was
met at Talcahuano, and captured, by a small squadron com-
manded by Captain Manuel Blanco, consisting of two armed
ships, a corvette and several trading vessels, hastily collected
and equipped, after the enemy had reached Cape Horn.

This was the last attempt made by Spain to reconquer the
country ; and the independence of the latter being now per-
manently secured, a form of government was established.
The first government was dictatorial. General O'Higgins,
originally chosen Dictator on the 16th of February, 1816,
was continued in office, under the title of Supreme Director
of Chili, till the year 1823. He was succeeded by Ramon
Freyre, who resigned in 1826. Meanwhjle various factions
had sprung up, all evidently desirous of securing the advance-
ment of the country in prosperity and greatness. Civil dis-
turbances and dissensions naturally grew out of these politi-
cal divisions ; repeated changes were made in the Executive,
but the government does not appear, at any time, to have
been administered with sufficient firmness and rigor. In
1828, a republican constitution was proclaimed, and Gen-
eral Pinto was elected president. The latter shortly after
resigned, and was succeeded by Ramon Vicuna, then presi-
dent of the Senate. Vicuna soon became unpopular ; and
the friends of liberal institutions, under the lead of General
Joaquin Prieto, took up arms against him. The civil war
ended in the complete overthrow of Vicuna. The brief ad-
ministrations of Tagle and Ovalle followed, and in 1831,
General Prieto was elected to the presidency. After holding
the office two terms, of five years each, he gave place to his
nephew General Bullies, — the constitution of the republic

88 ADMINISTRATION OF PRIETO. [1839.

prohibiting the election of the same person for a third succes-
sive term.

With the accession of Prieto to the Chief Magistracy, a
new era dawned upon Chili. He found everything in con-
fusion and disorder ; the military fast gaining the ascen-
dency ; and a national debt already contracted amounting
to the enormous sum of over eight million piasters.* He
was just the man for the crisis ; and he was warmly and
ibly seconded in his efforts to restore the credit and char-
icter of the country, by his minister of war and the interior,
Diego Portales. Certain means were taken to develop the
^sources of the state ; commerce was fostered, and industry
md enterprise of every kind encouraged ; the government
vas administered firmly, but mildly ; the taxes were re-
duced, and order and economy rigidly enforced in every
branch of the public service. Congress kept pace with the
Executive ; and its legislation was so directed as to secure
the perfect liberty of the citizen, so far as was compatible
with the public safety, and absolute equality under the law
to every man. No titles or special privileges were permitted
to be conferred, and all distinctions between native and
adopted citizens were abolished. One happy result of the
financial measures of Prieto, was the rapid increase of the
revenue — an advance of more than two hundred and fifty
per cent, in the annual receipts being realized in the short
space of twelve years — and, as a necessary consequence, the
speedy extinguishment of the public debt. Ever since the
year 1835, there has been a surplus of the revenue over the
expenditure; in 1842, the former amounted to three million
eight hundred thousand piasters, and the latter to two million
four hundred thousand, — showing a surplus of nearly fourteen
hundred thousand piasters. In May, 1843, Chilian six per
cents rose to 93, and in 1845 they were quoted at 104. Too
much praise cannot be awarded to Prieto, for his wise, skil-
ful, and successful statesmanship ; the chief merit of accom-
plishing these splendid results within so brief a period is

* About ten million dollars, federal currency.

1839.] GOVERNMENT. 89

certainly due to him, as his successor, Bnlnes has but carried
out the principles of political economy introduced under his
auspices.

Chili is what may be called a central republic. The Ex-
ecutive power is vested in a President, who receives an annual
salary of twelve thousand dollars ; he is assisted in the dis-
charge of his duties by four ministers, who constitute his
cabinet. There is also an executive council of eight mem-
bers. The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of
Deputies; the former containing nineteen members, and the
latter eighty-two. The senators are chosen for the term of
five years, in ten provinces ; and the deputies for three years,
in thirty-five departments. The administration of justice is
not yet free from the old Spanish forms, but it is expeditious,
and, in the main, impartial and equitable ; the judges hold
their offices for life. The army, in time of peace, numbers
about three thousand men.

Within the past ten years, Chili has steadily pursued a
career which promises at no distant day to produce a high
state of national prosperity. The indications of a sound and
healthful progress are everywhere visible. Flourishing towns
and villages, rich farms and plantations, occupy the places of
the miserable huts and haciendas of former times. Schools,
colleges, and other public institutions, have been established,
and the young people are now generally instructed in the
rudiments of knowledge. The national religion is the Roman
Catholic, but an exceedingly tolerant spirit prevails even
among the clergy. Protestant denominations are allowed
to worship after their own mode, but not to erect churches.

The republic of Chili is bounded on the north by the desert
of Atacama, which separates it from Bolivia and Peru ; on
the south by Patagonia ; on the east by the Great Cordillera
of the Andes ; and on the west by the Pacific. The islands
of Mocha and Juan-Fernandez, and the archipelago of
Chiloe, also belong to Chili. Within the limits above men-
tioned, however, the province of Araucania is embraced,
which, perhaps, may be a subject of dispute, as the warlike

90 DIFFICULTIES WITH PERU. [1839.

tribes who inhabit it have never yet been subdued, and claim
to be entirely independent. Including the islands, the total
area of Chilian territory is about one hundred and thirty
thousand square miles. Various estimates in regard to the
population have been made ; but the most reliable authorities
fix it at one million two hundred thousand. The people are
mostly of Spanish and Indian descent, although there are
some negroes and mulattoes. In the seaport towns, as in
Valparaiso, there are great numbers of foreigners, to whom
the country is much indebted for its present commercial im-
portance.

There are no slaves in Chili, but there exists in the coun-
try a condition of servitude, called peonage, common to most
of the colonies of Old Spain. After its conquest by the
Spaniards, Chili was divided into three hundred and sixty
portions, which were given to that number of individuals.
These, of course, have been frequently subdivided, but there
are still many large estates, which are generally kept for
grazing purposes. The proprietors usually reside with their
families in the towns ; the management of their farms being
entrusted to a major-domo, or steward, under whom are a
chief, and a few subordinate herdsmen, or guachos. These
are assisted in taking care of the land, by tenants, who hold
their dwellings under the proprietor, by a sort of feudal
tenure — being obliged to give their services in any kind of
labor required of them, either without pay, or for a small
remuneration — and are termed peons. They are for the most
part entirely dependent on their landlord, and sometimes the
most arbitrary exactions and impositions are practiced with
impunity.

One great drawback on the prosperity of Chili, has been
her difficulties with Peru. The latter was essentially aided
in her struggle with Spain by the men and money of the
former, and her independence was finally achieved, in 1821,
by a Chilian army under San Martin ; it would, therefore,
have been but reasonable to suppose, that the strongest ties
of gratitude and fraternal feeling would have united the

1839.] DEFEAT OF SANTA CRUZ. 01

people of the two countries firmly together. But the disaf
fected politicians and malcontents of Chili were always wel-
comed in Peru, and not only allowed, but encouraged, to
concoct their plans, and carry on their intrigues, for the
overthrow of the government of their own country. The
growing commerce of their neighbors had attracted the at-
tention of the Peruvians, and commercial jealousies and
rivalships were, doubtless, at the bottom of the inimical
feelings which they soon began openly to manifest. The
Chilians are resolute, independent, and high-minded, and
they took no pains to conceal their displeasure. The ani-
mosity thus engendered became more marked and decided,
in 1836, when Santa Cruz was elected Supreme Protector
of the Peru-Bolivian Republic.

The Protector not only issued a decree nullifying the treaty
with Chili then in existence, but he received the disaffected
Chilians with open arms, and even went so far as to arm
three men-of-war at Callao, which he placed at their dis-
posal in order to effect a revolution. The government of
Chili was not idle, however ; an expedition was fitted out,
and the vessels captured by a bold and well-executed coup
de main, the legality of which Peru was ultimately obliged
to acknowledge, before they had left the harbor of Callao.
The difficulty between the two governments did not end
here ; one act of aggression was followed by another ; and
at length Santa Cruz procured the passage of a law forbidding
all foreign vessels to visit any place on the Pacific coast of
South America, without having first entered a Peruvian
port, under the penalty of being required to pay additional
entrance duties. Chili promptly resented this insult by a
declaration of war ; a large military force was immediately
raised, and placed under the command of General Bulnes,
who invaded Peru, and occupied Lima and other towns with
his forces. In January, 1839, a general engagement took
place at Yungay, which resulted in the complete defeat of
Santa Cruz The loss of his power followed the loss of his
army, and the Protector was subsequently banished to

92 SANTIAGO. [1839.

Europe. A new treaty of peace was now concluded be-
tween Chili and Peru, the provisions of which have been
faithfully regarded and observed.

(4.) Sixty four miles from Valparaiso, in a south easterly
direction, is Santiago, the capital of Chili. It is pleasantly
situated on the eastern verge of the broad and fertile plain
of Maypu, at the foot of the Cordilleras.* The city proper
is on the southwestern bank of the Maypocho, a mountain
stream which is generally dry for nine months in the year,
but during the rainy season is swollen into a powerful
torrent. A handsome stone bridge, of five arches, spanning
the river, connects the suburb of La Chimba with the cap-
ital. On the southeast side of the latter is its suburb of
Canadilla, from which it is separated by the Canada, a
pleasant promenade, fifty yards wide, and planted with pop-
lars. At the southwestern angle of the city is the suburb
of Cuchunco.

At a distance Santiago has a very imposing appearance
In the outskirts, there are numerous pretty quintas, delight
fully embowered amid groves of laurel, myrtle, and poplar
The approaches to the city are mostly through shady lanes,
or avenues, flanked by high adobe walls, inclosing extensive
vineyards, well-stocked orchards and gardens, and finely-
cultivated maize fields. Passing these, you catch sight of
the domes and steeples of the capital towering above the
humbler edifices around them. Like most Spanish towns,
Santiago is divided into quadras, or squares, whose sides are
each a little over four hundred feet in length. The streets,
which are generally well-paved, and have good side-walks,
are about thirteen yards wide. In the city and its suburbs,
there are- between two and three hundred quadras, which
are included in five parishes. As the ground slopes gently
towards the west, the location of the town is peculiarly favor-
able for supplying the inhabitants with water, and for under
drainage ; in the latter respect, no other city in South Amer-

* Santiago occupies the site of an ancient Indian Settlement. It was founded
by Valdivia, in l.">] I

1S89.] APPEARANCE OF THE CITY. 93

ica can compare with the Chilian capital. The waters of the
Maypocho are also employed for ornamental purposes ; there
being a great number of public fountains and reservoirs scat-
tered through the city. The Plaza, occupying an entire
quadra in the centre of the town, contains "the largest foun-
tain, furnished with water by a subterraneous aqueduct,
from which the inhabitants principally obtain their supplies
for drinking. The water is conveyed in barrels holding ten
gallons each — two of which are a load for a mule — and sold
for about ten cents per barrel.

A solid brick wall, or rampart, six feet broad, and ten feet
high, extends along the south bank of the Maypocho, as a
protection against inundation during the heavy rains. Be-
tween the river and the town is the Alameda, which is
planted with willows, and furnished with seats, reservoirs,
and artificial streams of running water ; in pleasant weather,
it is thronged, in the afternoon and evening, with all classes
and sexes, with beggars and hidalgos, rosy-cheeked padres,
dark-eyed senoritas, and stately caballeros, — and the soft
moonlight that streams down the rugged sides of the Andes,
and falls tremblingly upon the plain of Maypu, rests nowhere
on happier or more picturesque groups, than those which may
be seen in the cool paseos of this favorite promenade of the
citizens of Santiago. At the northeastern angle of the city-
proper, is the hill of Santa Lucia, the site of the fortress
bearing the same name, intended to command the town ;
there is no other defence, and the artillery in this work
could be easily silenced by guns planted on the neighboring
hills.

In cleanliness, regularity, and salubrity, Santiago greatly
surpasses the other cities of South America ; but it is inferior
to Lima in its public buildings. On the northwest side of
the plaza, are the presidential mansion, the palace of govern-
ment, the prison, and the chamber of justice ; on the south-
west side stands the cathedral, and the old palace of the
bishop, now occupied by the estddo mayor ; on the south-
east there is a range of shops with a colonnade in front, and

94 PUBLIC EDIFICES. [1839.

the remaining side is occupied by private residences. All
these buildings, except the cathedral, are built of brick,
plastered over and whitewashed, and show more or less
marks of the injuries occasioned by the frequent earthquakes.
The palace, originally built for the vice-regal government,
makes the most pretensions to architectural beauty ; it con-
sists of two stories surrounding a large open quadrangle ; in
the lower story are the armory and treasury, — in the upper,
the great hall of audience and the ministerial offices.

The cathedral is the only stone edifice in the city ; the
material of which it is constructed was quarried in the suburb
of La Chimba ; its design is Moorish, and has been executed
with considerable taste and skill ; it is a large and extensive
building, and contains, inside, an abundance of gold and silver
ornaments, paintings, tapestry, and wax figures. The parish
churches are comparatively mean structures ; but the con-
ventual establishments, of which there are many, are well
built and furnished. The bishop's palace is a heavy, sombre-
looking building, fast going to decay. The largest public
edifice in Santiago is the mint, which covers a whole square.
To most strangers it seems unsightly enough, but the natives
really look upon it with admiration. It is of plain brick, and
like the other buildings erected for state purposes, was con-
structed by bricklayers sent out from Spain expressly for
this purpose. Its front presents a series of heavy pilasters,
supporting a rude cornice and ponderous balustrade, in the
centre of which is a massive arched portico. It is still in-
complete, and is much dilapidated, principally by reason of
the earthquakes. It consists of a variety of offices arranged
round three quadrangular courts. Few of the modern im-
provements have been introduced here, and the operation of
coining is still in a rude state. The Consulddo, a spacious
structure, plastered and whitewashed, in which the commer-
cial tribunal, and the national congress, meet, is also worthy
of notice. Santiago likewise boasts of a custom-house, a
theatre, and a chingdno. There is a national college, too,
occupying what was formerly one of the Jesuits' convents:

1S39.J PRIVATE DWELLINGS. 95

and another of these edifices is used for the public library and
printing-office. The library contains several thousand printed
volumes, and a number of curious manuscripts relative to the
Indian tribes, who originally occupied the country.

Most of the private dwellings in Santiago are but one story
high, — being built in this manner on account of the earth-
quakes. They have red tiled roofs projecting so as to form
a piazza, or covered-way ; and the outside walls, as well as
those around the orchards and gardens, are all whitewashed
bver every year, which gives them a peculiarly neat and lively
appearance. The houses occupy considerable ground ; many
of them take up one sixth part of a quadra. They consist
of different compartments, or suites of rooms, ranged round
three patios, or quadrangular courts ; the first, or outer
court, is usually paved with pebbles from the bed of the
Maypocho ; the second is commonly laid out as a parterre,
and decorated with shrubs and flowers ; and the third is used
for domestic purposes. A wide archway opening into the
front patio, is open during the day, but closed at night by
heavy folding gates. The windows looking into the two
outer courts, are protected by ornamental iron gratings ; the
windows in the rear court are generally small openings in
the doors also covered with gratings. The two fronts, on
either side of the gateway, and the sides facing the streets,
where there are not blank walls, are often divided into rooms
separate from the apartments occupied by the family, and
rented for shops and fancy stores.

There are three markets in the city, the principal one of
which is held in the Bassordl, a large open space covering
four or five acres, at the foot of the bridge. The area is sur-
rounded by a low building, with a tile roof, supported by
columns. Good meat, and fruit and vegetables of all kinds,
can be procured here. The other markets are mere movea-
ble stands at either end of the Canada. Meat, kitchen
vegetables, fruits, and lucerne, the common fodder for horses,
are continually hawked about the streets.

Santiago is famous for its fine horses. Large quantities

96 MARKETS. [1839.

of stock arc raised on the extensive grazing "rounds near the
city, and there is scarcely a family in the town but has one
or more horses. These animals are generally well broken,
and are more docile than those of Buenos Ayres. The aver-
age price of a horse is twelve dollars, but when thorough!}
trained they command as high prices as in the United
States. • Beef and mutton, of the finest quality, are both
cheap and abundant.

The inhabitants of Santiago are remarkably obliging and
courteous ; somewhat too fond of their chief national amuse-
ments, dancing and music, and, to a certain extent, addicted
to their fashionable game of monte, yet, withal, orderly and
well-disposed. They are sincerely attached to the devotional
forms and ceremonies of their religion. No obtrusive exhi-
bition of this feeling is made, but the stranger cannot well
avoid noticing it ; even though it may be common in most
of the cities and towns of South America. It is particularly
remarkable, when the bells of the cathedral announce the
arrival of the hour for the oration, or sunset prayer. The
streets are then filled with the gay and lively population, and
all is mirthful and joyous. But as the first peal echoes from
the cathedral tower, everything is hushed and still, as if some
mighty spell had been thrown over the city ; the caballero
reins back his steed on his haunches ; the laughing senorita
hesitates in the midst of her witty repartee ; the artisan suffers
his hammer to fall silently on his bench ; even the gamester
pauses in his throw of the dice ; and in the pauses of the
chimes, the cool plash of the water falling over the marble
statutes in the fountain, may be heard many a yard from the
plaza.

As in Valparaiso, the gentlemen in Santiago follow the
European fashions; but the ladies, notwithstanding the
French milliners and mantuamakers who have immigrated
to Chili, adhere more closely to the customs of olden time, —
and a bonnet, thanks to the soft atmosphere and beautiful
climate which allows them to dispense with this incumbrance,

1839.] OTHER TOWNS IN CHILI. 97

is almost as great a rarity on the plains of Maypu, as it would
be in the Feejee Islands.

Santiago contains about sixty-five thousand inhabitants,
an- is constantly increasing, — a fact which speaks volumes
in favor of Chilian industry and enterprise, since the same
cannot be said of another inland capital in South America.
Besides Santiago and Valparaiso, there are several other
towns in Chili of considerable note. Coquimbo, or La Serena,
in North Chili, has a population amounting to nearly ten
thousand ; it is the chief port of the mining country, and its
copper is esteemed the best in the world. The town is re-
markably clean, and well laid out — the streets intersecting
each other at right angles. It has several churches, a public
school, and a hospital ; the houses are built of sun-dried
bricks, with few exceptions, and are one story in height.
Numerous gardens of fruit-trees and evergreens, give the
place a refreshing and agreeable look. Huasco, still further
to the north, is famed for its rich silver mines. Concepcion
and Valdivia, in the southern part of the republic, are noted
for their fine harbors. The former, was once a flourishing
town containing twenty thousand inhabitants, but it has
latterly declined in trade and manufactures, and the popula-
tion does not now exceed eight thousand. It stands on a
low neck of land between the river Biobio and the bay of
Concepcion ; it is laid out like Coquimbo, and the houses
are constructed in the same manner ; previously to 1835, it
possessed a large cathedral and several other fine buildings,
but, in that year, these, with the greater part of the town,
were destroyed by an earthquake. Valdivia is rather an
insignificant collection of wooden huts, but it contains five
thousand inhabitants, and has the finest, and one of the most
strongly fortified harbors, in the South Pacific ; this consists
of an estuary, formed by the Valdivia and several smaller
rivers, entered by a narrow strait, the shores of which are
garnished with batteries, mounting, in all, one hundred and
thirty guns; ships of the line ride here in safety — there being
from six to seven fathoms of water in the centre of the bay,

5

98 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [1839.

and five fathoms near the shore. The town is about sixteen
miles from the mouth of the Valdivia, and was almost ruined
by an earthquake in 1837. It is the capital and market
town of the province of Valdivia, and has a large and rapidly
increasing trade.

(5.) What has been said in regard to the style of dress
prevalent in Valparaiso and Santiago, is applicable to the
Chilenos generally, and especially so to the inhabitants of
the larger towns. Elsewhere, the old Spanish costumes are
more frequently met with among the better classes ; but the
dress of the common people is a mixture of Spanish and In-
dian. The latter are fond of bright colors. The males wear
a blue or brown poncho, over their shirt and trowsers, and
a steeple-crowned, small rimmed hat, beneath which is a
bright cotton handkerchief, tied on with strings under the
chin. In very warm weather the tall hat is laid aside for
the broad-leafed sombrero. The women wear gowns of
calico or woolen stuff, and mantillas, or bay etas, as at-
tractive in color and quality, as the ability of the wearer will
permit her to purchase. In the mining districts, a most pic-
turesque dress is worn by those who work in the mines. It
consists of a long shirt of dark baize, with a leathern apron
fastened around the waist by a bright-colored sash ; very broad
trowsers ; and a small cap of scarlet cloth fitting closely to
the head.

The Chilians possess fewer vices than the Creoles of the
other Spanish colonies in South America, but they are fre-
quently dissipated and profligate in their habits, and, in the
towns, much too fond of dress and display. They are mod-
erate in their food, though addicted to drinking to excess.
They are less indolent, and more hardy than the Castilian
race generally ; more industrious and enterprising, and more
of a money-getting and money-loving people. Kindness and
courtesy characterize their intercourse with strangers ; yet
are they proud-spirited and high-mettled, somewhat jealous
in disposition, quick to take aflront, and of an unforgiving
temper.

1839.] TOPOGRAPHY. 99

As in Valparaiso and Santiago, most of the better class of
private dwellings throughout Chili, are built of adobes, one
story in height ; the habitations of the peasantry, and of the
lower classes in towns and cities, are mere huts, usually hav-
ing but one room, constructed of reeds and mud, and thatched
with straw.

Educational improvement, and the introduction of a more
refined taste, will, doubtless, produce great changes in the
manners and customs of the people of Chili ; but, while earth-
quakes continue to be so frequent, it is questionable whether a
finer or more expensive style of building will prevail. Pru-
dence and economy, in neither of which are they lacking, will
always give the preference to the safest and cheapest mode.

Most of the Indian population continue to dwell in a state
of independence south of the Biobio ; but a considerable number
live in missions. The former belie, in almost every respect,
the highly-wrought and nattering descriptions in the Arau-
cana of Ercilla y Zuniga ; they are wild, fierce, and intracta-
ble, and but little more advanced in civilization than the rude
inhabitants of Patagonia.

(6.) In the northern part of Chili, the country rises from
the coast to the Great Cordillera, by a number of successive
terraces running parallel to the sea; but, elsewhere, it is a
broad expansion of the mountainous Andes, spreading forth
its spurs and branches from the central ridge towards the
Pacific, whieh diminish continually, but irregularly, till they
reach the ocean. These ramifications of the main Cordillera
are generally two thousand feet above the bottom of the val-
leys that intersect them, and seldom less than one thousand
feet. The patches between the ridges constitute the finest
portions of middle Chili. Some of the valleys are broad, as is
the case with the boasted vale of Aconcagua, one of the most
fertile spots on the American continent. North of 30° 30',
the Cordillera is divided into separate ranges, inclosing the
immense valley of Uspallata, celebrated more particularly for
its extensive mineral ri:hes. There are a few small plains

*********

V* y .tot***

LOO FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. [1839.

along the coast, between the spurs of the mountain chains;
but the shores are mostly high, rocky, and precipitous.

The climate of Chili is equable and healthy. In the sum-
mer the weather is remarkable fine. Day after day, for
weeks and months together, the atmosphere is transparently
pure and clear ; save, perhaps, the light blue haze which
sometimes adds a new, and almost unnecessary charm, to what
is all brightness, gayety, and joy. The interior is much
warmer than the coast ; at Valparaiso, the thermometer
ranges, in midsummer, from 64° to 72° ; and, at Santiago,
the mean summer heat, from December to March, is about
84i° at midday, and 58° at night. During the summer, the
wind blows steadily from the southward, and a little off the
shore, but at sunset there is almost always a cool and pleas-
ant breeze. No rain falls in the summer ; it is abundant,
however, through the winter months, from June to September,
in the southern provinces. No snow falls along the coast,
and frost is very rare. North of Santiago there are only a
few occasional showers even in the winter ; and in the arid
province of Coquimbo, no rain whatever falls, but its place
is occasionally supplied by heavy night dews.

Chili abounds in small rivers, which carry off the melted
snow from the Andes, but it has none capable of being navi-
gated to any extent, except the Maule and the Biobio.

The high chain of the Andes is chiefly composed of argil-
laceous schist, and the lower chains and groups, of granite.
Sienitic, basaltic, and felspar porphyries, serpentines of vari-
ous colors, quartz, hornblende and other slates, pudding-stone
and gypsum, are found in the Cordillera, and there is fine
statuary marble in the department of Copiapo. The soil of
the northern provinces is sandy and saline, and probably not
one fiftieth part of the north half of the country can ever be
cultivated. In the central provinces, some of the valleys are
considerably inclined, and admit of irrigation where water can
be procured ; but the hills and ridges, for the greater part of
the year, are dry and parched. South of the Maule, the pro-
portion of arable land is greater, and the soil becomes mora

1839.] PRODUCTIONS. 101

stiff and loamy. At Concepcion, in about 37° southern lati-
tude, the plains and valleys are decked with the brightest
and richest flowers, or clothed with the most luxuriant foli-
age ; while hills and mountains are wooded to their summits
with stately forest trees. In the latitude of Valparaiso, from
one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles further north, it
is only in the cultivation of the interval lands, that the hus-
bandman finds a recompense for his toil. At Coquimbo, the
sickly grass and stunted brushwood which alone redeem the
hills in the neighborhood of Valparaiso from the curse of bar-
renness, are no longer to be found, and, in their stead, are
seen only a short wiry grass, and a feeble apology for the
prickly-pear. At Guasco, vegetation entirely disappears ; the
country is diversified, indeed, with hill and plain, but all is
one vast and dreary Sahara, — the little rivulets, that cany
off the liquefied snows of the Andes, sing their lullaby in vain,
and their moisture is soon evaporated by the dry scorching
heat, that, vampire-like, robs the earth of nourishment and life.
Most of the hard woods abound in the forests of Chili ; and
laurels, myrtles, cypresses, and other evergreens, attain to
such a size that they are highly valuable and useful for their
timber. The mimosa farncsiana, and the algarob, are quite
common ; and the guillai, from the bark of which a natural
soap is made, is brought to the towns as an article of trade.
The palm and cinnamon tree were formerly met with in
abundance, but they are now rarely seen. Apricots, figs,
plums, pears and cherries, of large size and fine flavor, are
produced in great quantities. Herbaceous plants and flowers
are as various and abundant, as they are rich and beautiful.
The climate and soil of southern and middle Chili are pecu-
liarly well calculated for the culture of the cereal grains.
Wheat is the principal agricultural staple, and is largely ex-
ported from the central provinces. Barley is grown to a con-
siderable extent, in the south. Little attention is paid to the
culture of corn. All kinds of pulse and culinary vegetables
are raised, and potatoes are extensively produced.* The vine

* The. potato is a native of South Chili.

102 zoology. [1839

and olive, where they are properly cultivated, yield an abun-
dance of good fruit; but the manufacture of wine and on
is in a very rude state.

The art of agriculture is greatly behindhand in Chili, and
the implements of husbandry are of the most primitive models.
The plow consists of the part of a trunk of a tree, with a crooked
branch projecting from it which serves as a handle ; the fore-
part of the trunk is wedgeshaped, and has a flattish pointed
piece of iron nailed to it which performs the double duty of
colter and share. For the harrow, a heap of brushes, weighed
down with stones, is substituted ; and the blade-bone of a
sheep is the principal implement used for weeding the garden.
The greater part of the labor at the haciendas, or farms, is
performed by oxen ; mules being principally employed in car-
rying burdens, and horses kept for riding and similar purposes.
The yoke is fastened not to the shoulders, but to the horns of
the cattle, according to the ancient Spanish method. Reap-
ing is done with a rough sickle, and the grain is thrashed, or
stamped out, with horses, on a hard dry spot of ground.
From eight hundred to a thousand bushels are thrashed at
one time. The grain is generally left in the open air till the
rainy season begins.

Cattle-breeding, however, is probably the most important
branch of agricultural industry. In the middle provinces,
from ten to twenty thousand head of cattle are often fed on
a single hacienda, and the smallest grazing farms support
from four to five thousand head. Horses, mules, asses, goats
and sheep, are likewise plentiful. Hogs are not so common,
and are of an inferior quality.

Llamas and guanacoes, the puma, the jaguar, and other
wild animals found in South America, inhabit Chili. There
are likewise numerous varieties of the monkey tribe. Foxes
are very common. A kind of beaver which frequents the
rivers, and the chinchilla abounding in the deserts at tin-
north, are hunted for their furs which are much prized. The
country is comparatively free from venomous quadrupeds, and
noxious insects and reptiles ; the skunk being almost the only

1839.] COMMERCE. 103

really annoying animal to be found there. There are good
fishing grounds on the coast, at which whales, dolphins, cod,
pilchards, and other small fish, are caught. Now and then
a sea-dog is observed, but they are quite rare. Among the
birds are the great condor, several species of vultures, the
cormorant, the penguin, the cut-water or shear-bill, and the
snipe. Flocks of parrots and parroquets are found. Small
green parrots, not larger than finches, are caught in the in-
terior, tamed, and sold in the towns. But the most beautiful
and majestic bird is the swan, which is often seen sailing in
the bay of Valparaiso ; its body is of dazzling white, and its
neck and head are black.

(7.) Chili is said to be the only American state, formerly
subject to Spain, whose commerce has increased since the
separation from the mother country ; and this single fact is,
of itself, a high encomium upon the enterprise and industry
of its inhabitants. Under the Spaniards, Chili had no inter-
course but with Peru and Buenos Ay res; now the vessels of
all the principal commercial nations on the globe frequent her
harbors. From 1825 to 1829, the annual average receipts
from customs were less than nine hundred thousand dollars ;
in 1834, they amounted to nearly one and a quarter million ;
and in 1841, they were but little short of two millions of
dollars. Linens are imported from Germany ; silks, paper,
leather, wines and brandy, from France ; manufactured
goods, hardware and iron, from Great Britain ; silks, nankeens,
tea and sugar, from China and the East Indies ; tobacco, oil,
spermaceti candles, sugar, and manufactured goods, from. the
United States; and various products from the different coun-
tries in South America. The principal exports are bullion,
copper, hides, tallow, pulse, wheat, fruits, and drugs. During
the year ending the 30th of June, 1847, the imports from,
and exports to the United States, amounted to about one
million seven hundred dollars ; there being a small balance
in favor of Chili.

Valparaiso enjoys the honor of being the chief seaport town,
and is commonly called " The Port," by way of distinction.

104 INTERNAL TRADE. [1839

In 1834, only 450 vessels, aggregating 77,700 tons, entered
this harbor, and in 1842 there were 6S5 vessels, 617 of which
were commercial, aggregating 187,453 tons. The transit
trade is enormous. On the 21st of May, 1842, there were
over seven hundred thousand bales of merchandise, valued at
upwards of seven millions of dollars, and coined metals ex-
ceeding three millions, at the custom-house of Valparaiso
alone.

The internal trade of Chili is not very great ; there being
no principal towns in the interior except the capital. Be-
sides, there are few accommodations or facilities for travelling.
The only passable roads are those leading from Santiago to
Valparaiso and Concepcion ; bridges are scarce and poorly
constructed, and in some places the mountain torrents and
ravines are crossed by Indian hanging bridges, made of osiers
and thongs of raw hide, which sway to and fro fearfully,
with the weight of the person crossing them. Burdens are
chiefly carried, over the high ridges separating the valleys,
on the backs of mules ; on the main roads, heavy merchan-
dise is hauled in ox-carts constructed entirely of wood, strongly
framed and pinned together. From two to four yoke of oxen
are attached to one cart ; the box, or top, — similar in shape
to the tilt of a Pennsylvania wagon, but not so large, — is
made of wattles covered with stout bull's hide. The vehicle
principally used for the convenience of travellers is a sort of
double gig, called a birloche, carrying two passengers. Three
birlocheros, or drivers, and from ten to fifteen horses, accom-
pany the carriage. One horse is secured in the shafts, and
one on either side, attached to the vehicle by thongs of hide,
is ridden by a driver. The horses on duty are relieved by
those that run along in the cabalgada. These conveyance,
like the Irish jaunting-car, are driven at break-neck speed,
and the traveller is fortunate if he reaches his journey's end
without any injury. The paisdnos, or country people, bring
their wares to the market towns in panniers, on the backs of
asses or mules, which they delight in scourging with the long
poles that they invariably carry. Hay, mainly consisting of

1839.] mines. 105

lucerne grass, is brought in the same manner, — the owner
sitting in the midst of his load, almost out of sight, and his
lower extremities completely lost in the brobdignag stirrups,
nearly as large as a peck measure, that dangle beneath him.

Connected with the commerce are the manufactures of the
country. The Chilenos are excellent potters, and make light
and strong earthen jars that ring like metal. Hempen cloths,
common hemp cordage, soap, leather, wine, brandy, tallow,
charcoal, and some rough articles of copper ware, are the
chief articles manufactured. Besides the acida and aguar-
diente, or wine and brandy, made from the grape, a potation
called chicha* is made by boiling down the clear grape-juice
after fermentation.

(8.) Though so large a portion of Chili is not susceptible
of cultivation, nevertheless, even there, it contains vast depos-
itories of wealth, which more than compensate for the defi-
ciency. The country is extremely rich in minerals. Silver
is found there at a greater elevation than any other metal ;
it is also met with in the valleys, or bowls, in the lower
ranges, but it generally decreases in quantity in proportion
to its distance from the Andes. The most valuable silver
mine is that of Huasco. Gold occurs altogether in alluvial
formations, and most, if not all, the rivers, wash down this
valuable mineral. Lead and iron are abundant, but are not
much sought after. Zinc, antimony, manganese, arsenic,
tin, alum, salt, nitre, and sulphur, so pure as not to require
refining, are plentiful. Coal mines, which improve as they
are worked, have been opened near Concepcion, and already
form a principal article of trade and consumption at Valpa-

* This is not the chica, or intoxicating beer, found among the aborigines of
Chili and Peru. That was produced by fermenting maize or Indian corn, pre-
pared in a most disgusting manner, according to the account given in Acosta's
Natural History of the Indies, and Frezier's voyages to the South sea, and the
western coast of South America— the saliva of the females being used for barm
in producing the fermentation. The Abbe Molina says it was customary with
the aborigines, when burying their dead to deposit an earthen jar filled with
chica in the mound, with the deceased, to subsist him on his journey to the other

world.

5.*

106 MINING SYSTEM. 1839

raiso. From 1790 to 1830, gold to the value of two million,
seven hundred thousand pounds sterling, and about half that
amount of silver, were produced in Chili. In 1833, the gold
coinage at the mint in Santiago amounted to three hundred
ninety-two thousand, five hundred dollars, and the silver to
ninety-two thousand dollars.

But the copper mines in Coquimbo, at Jajuel, near San
Felipe, and other localities, constitute the chief sources of
national wealth. The mineral is extracted in different forms,
— as native copper, orange oxide of copper, carbonate of cop-
per, and copper pyrites associated with some muriate of cop-
per. In a few mines, masses of native copper, of extraordi-
nary magnitude have been found. In 1834, nearly 42,860 quin-
tals of copper and copper ore, were exported from Coquimbo
alone ; the total value of the product in all Chili, in the same
year, was 75,000 hundred weight. The annual exportation
of copper is now worth upwards of two millions of dollars.

Every facility and encouragement in the search for mines,
is afforded by the government. The discoverer may work a
mine in any ground by paying five shillings sterling ; and
before paying this, he may try, even in the garden of another
man, for the space of twenty days. At the copper mines, the
laborers undergo the severest hardships for a trifling remun-
eration ; one pound, sterling, a month, together with food,
being the usual compensation. In winter and summer, they
begin work at early dawn, and leave off at dark. But little
time is allowed for meals. The food furnished to the miners
consists of sixteen figs and two small loaves of bread for
breakfast, boiled beans for dinner, and broken roasted wheat
grain for supper. Once a week, very rarely, but never oftener,
they are provided with the hard dried beef of the country,
called charqui.

There are two classes of laborers, — the barreteros, or min-
ers, who work the lode, and the apires, who carry the ore
upon their backs to the surface. The latter perform the most
difficult and laborious part of the work. According to a gen-
eral regulation, the apire is not allowed to halt for breath,

1839.] DEPARTURE PROM VALFARAISO. 107

except the mine is six hundred feet deep. With a lighted
candle in a cloven stick grasped in his hand, and over two
hundred pounds of ore on his back, twelve times in the. day,
where the mine is not over eighty yards deep, the apire climbs
the notched trees placed in a zig-zag line up the shaft, ami
during the intervals is employed in breaking and picking
ore. Yet, notwithstanding this great tax upon his physical
powers, he appears healthy and cheerful. On reaching the
surface with his carpdcho he is nearly overcome, and the
perspiration rolls down in streams ; but after depositing his
burden on the pile of ores, a few seconds serve to revive him,
and he again descends the mine at a quick pace, and with a
light step.

Two principal persons — the proprietor, and the habilitddor
— are usually concerned in a mine. The proprietor is the
actual miner ; he resides at his hacienda near the mine, the
working of which he superintends, and supplies his laborers
with vegetables and meat from his farm. The habilitddor
is the capitalist, who resides at one of the seaport towns, and
manages the financial affairs of the partnership. The melt-
ing-house is generally built on the hacienda, and where the
mine is distant, the ore is brought from it on the backs of
mules.

(9.) The Porpoise sailed from Valparaiso for Callao on the
26th of May, and the remainder of the squadron got under
way on the 6th of June. The Peacock and Flying Fish
came to anchor in the harbor of Callao, under the island of
San Lorenzo, on the 18th of June, and the Vincennes joined
them on the 20th.

CHAPTER VI.

'1.) San Lorenzo. Callao.— (2.) Lima. Public Buildings and Private Resi-
dences. Its Inhabitants. — (3.) Other Principal Towns in Peru.— (4.) History
of Peru. Civil Dissensions.— (5.) The Peruvians. Traits and Characteris-
tics. Mode of Building. Vehicles for Travelling and Carrying Burdens. —
(6.) Topography. Mineral Wealth.— (7.) Climate. Agricultural Products.—
(8.) Commerce and Manufactures.— (9.) Birds and Animals.— (10.) Sailing
of the Exploring Squadron.

(1.) San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped, barren island,
which protects the southwest side of the bay of Callao. It
is about fifteen miles in circumference, and is intersected,
throughout its whole length, by a ridge of sharp crested hills,
the highest of which are nearly thirteen hundred feet above
the level of the sea. Few or no signs of vegetation are to be
seen. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep rocks on the
southern side of the island, and flocks of water-fowl make
their nests on the desolate shore. On the south, San Lorenzo
is separated by a narrow strait, from a small rocky island
called El Fronton, and between it and the coast of the main-
land, is an extensive shallow two miles wide, termed the
Camotal. Two centuries ago, the Camotal was dry land,
upon which large quantities of camotes (sweet potatoes) were
raised, but was completely inundated, either in the great
earthquake of 1687, oi in that of 1630. The geological ap-
pearances presented on the island and along the main coast
indicate a gradual rising of the land since its submersion,
but sufficient facts have not yet been ascertained, to estab-
lish any reliable or satisfactory data. The only object of
attraction which San Lorenzo contains, is the burying-ground
of foreign seamen who are not of the Catholic faith. The
graves are covered with white stones, and a white board,

1839.] HARBOR OF CALLAO. 109

placed at the head of each, contains the name of the person
interred beneath, and, in many instances, poetic inscriptions,
commemorative, alike, of his virtues, and of the friendship of
his surviving comrades.*

The bay of Callab is one of the largest and calmest on the
western coast of South America. The roadstead is decidedly
the best in Peru ; there being good anchorage in from seven
to ten fathoms. In former times, a raft or float, called the
balsa, formed of two long skin bags, blown up like bladders,
and covered with a light platform, was used to load and un-
load vessels ; afterwards a rude pier was constructed, behind
which vessels of heavy burden could discharge or receive car-
goes, in perfect security from the breakers ; and, more re-
cently, a fine mole has been erected, surrounded by an iron
railing. The beach is flat, and for the most part shingly ;
about the mouths of the Rimac and the Rio de Chillon, two
small rivers that debouch into the bay, it is somewhat marshy.
The harbor is, or rather was, well fortified. Two massive
fortresses built in low situations, extending far out into the
sea, once commanded the harbor and its entrances, and the
plain between Callao and Lima.t The northern fortress con-
sists of two castles, the largest of which the Spaniards named

* Some of these inscriptions arc as quaint as those on the tomb-stones in the
old English churchyards. One of the wooden monuments, erected to the memory
of Thomas Hedrick, a lad belonging to the U. S. ship of the line North Carolina,
has the following :

" In vain had youth its flight impeded,
And hope its passage had delayed ;
Death's mandate all has superseded, —
The latest order Tom obeyed."

Another, reared above the remains of one of H. B. M. Royal Marines, says :

" I 'm here at rest from busy scenes ;
I once belonged to the Royal Marines;
I 'm now confined within these borders,
Remaining here for further orders."

f The principal fortress is now used for custom-house purposes, and tide-
waiters and messengers, utterly guiltless of everything like cleanliness, occupy
the places once honored by the presence of the brave Rodil and his gallant
brethren in arms.

110 APPEARANCE OF THE TOWN. [1839.

Real Felipe, bnt since the Revolution it has been called El
Castillo de la Indepcndencia ; — it has two round towers,
wide, but not high, spacious courtyards, and a deep ditch
which can be filled with water from the sea. The southern
fortification is called El Castillo del Sol. Before the War of
Independence, the two together mounted four hundred pieces
of cannon, many of them of very large calibre ; but they are
now dismantled and decayed ; the armaments have disap-
peared ; the cross and shield of Castile and Leon no longer
float above their ruins, and the galeOns which once poured
an unbroken tide of wealth into the coffers of old Spain have
forever vanished. Gloomy witnesses are these relics of the
past, of ancient Castilian pride, and power, and wealth — of
modern lethargy and retrogradation !

Callao is comparatively of modern origin. The ancient
town bearing the same name stood a little nearer the ocean,
and was completely destroyed and submerged by the dread-
ful earthquake of 1746; it contained, at that time, four
thousand inhabitants, barely two hundred of whom escaped.
It has often been said that the old town could be seen beneath
the waves, on a calm day and with a clear sky; and Captain
Wilkes seems to have adopted this opinion, probably without
a very careful examination, in his Narrative of the Exploring
Expedition.* Dr. Von Tschudit and other intelligent travel-
lers have repeatedly examined the Mar brava — the spot de-
signated as the locality of the ruins — but without discovering
the least trace of these chateaux en Espag-ne. The story is,
doubtless, all a mere fiction, originating like many another
marvel, which, though equally unfounded, has not been with-
out believers.

Modern Callao is situated on the north side of a projecting
tongue of land. It contains about five thousand inhabitants,

CD '

and begins to wear the appearance of a populous town; yet
it is damp and dirty in the winter, dry and dusty in the sum-
mer, and excessively filthy at all seasons of the year. The

* Vol. I. p. 235. f Travels in Peru, (Wiley and Putnam's edition.) p. 33.

1839.] ROAD TO THE CAPITAL. Ill

principal street, parallel with the beach, is paved in a misera-
ble manner ; the others, with the exception of that leading
to Lima, are mean, narrow lanes. The houses are slightly
built, and are usually one story high ; the walls are con-
structed of adobes, or of reeds plastered over with loam or
red clay ; the azoteas, or flat roofs, consist of a framework
of reeds with straw mats laid upon them. In order to ensure
privacy, the windows are generally in the roof; they are mere
trap-doors, with wooden gratings, closed by shutters on the
inside. The houses are all whitewashed outside and in, and
most of them are furnished with clumsy verandas and flag-
staffs.

Very little attention is paid anywhere to comfort and clean-
liness. Heaps of offal and rubbish are suffered to accumulate
in the streets, around which the do^s and buzzards con^re-
gate in droves. Unshorn and unwashed padres jostle each
other on the trottoir. Groups of lazy, idle soldiers, consist-
ing of Indians, negroes, and mulattoes, — all attired like raga-
muffins, — may be seen collected about every dirty and mis-
erable cafe ; while their officers, in popinjay costume, saunter
along the mole, or lounge at the Custom-house. Fowls and
hogs are free commoners in door and out. The orange-women,
who sit all day long in front of their houses, beside the 'rich
and luscious fruit that tempts the passer-by, when not en-
gaged with their chaffering customers, are busily occupied in
hunting for vermin on their own persons ; and the fine ladies
over the way, who thrum their guitars, or exhibit their finery
on the paseo, in the after part of the day, would scarcely be
recognized in their slatternly costume in the morning.

Callao derives most, if not all, its importance, from its ex-
cellent harbor, and its proximity to Lima, from which it is
about six miles distant ; and should the country ever be freed
from the misrule of military demagogues, it may yet become
one of the most populous and important seaports on the
Pacific. A broad, and what was formerly a well paved road,
runs, nearly in a straight line, from the Castle of Independence
to the Callao Gate of Lima. Omnibuses built in Newark,

112 lima. [1839.

New Jersey, ply regularly between the city ana the port.
For more than half the distance, the road is flanked on either
hand by sandy and uncultivated fields, or low brushwood ;
but about one mile from the capital commences the Alameda
del Callab, through which the road passes, — a charming
promenade, provided with beautiful shade trees, and stone
seats for the weary foot-passenger, and bordered with beauti-
ful gardens and luxuriant fruit trees. Less than half a mile
from the castle is the small village of Bella Vista ; beyond
this are the ruins of an ancient Indian town ; and midway
between the harbor and the city are the convent of la Virgen
del Carmen, a chapel, and a Tambo. The Tambo is an inn,
and, were it among us, would probably be styled " The Half-
way-House." Among the Peruvians, however, it is called
La Legua — The League — which conveys the same idea, as
the house is a Spanish league distant from either town.

(2.) Lima is built in an amphitheatre formed by the spurs
jutting out from the great chain of the Andes, near the eastern
side of a broad plain which slopes gradually down to the
Pacific, and is elevated nearly five hundred feet above the
level of the sea. It lies on both banks of the river Rimac,
from which the modern name of the city was derived by a
corrupt pronunciation. The larger part of the town — the
city proper — is on the southern bank of the river, and is con-
nected with its suburb of San Lazaro, or the fifth section, on
the opposite shore, by an excellent stone bridge of six arches,
furnished with recesses and seats, and forming a delightful
and favorite promenade. The city is about two miles long
from east to west — from the Gate of Maravillas to the Mon-
serrate — and a mile and a quarter broad. The plain on
which it stands slopes from the east to the west. Like other
Spanish towns in South America, it is laid out with great.
regularity, in quadras, or squares of houses, the sides of
which average from 140 to 145 varas* The streets, gen-
erally about thirty-four feet wide, intersect each other at

* Each vara is about thirty-three inches English measure.

1839.] THE PLAZA MAYOR. 113

right angles, and, in the older and principal part of the city,
run from south-east to north-west, so that the walls of the
houses cast a shade both in the morning and afternoon. At
noon, there can be no shade, as the city is situated in lati-
tude 12° south.

Through the centre of most of the streets in Lima, there
runs a stream of water, three feet wide, which is the recepta-
cle of all the garbage, refuse and filth, thrown from the pri-
vate dwellings ; yet, as there are buzzards and dogs, without
number, to perform the part of scavengers, the nuisance is
not so intolerable as it would otherwise be. The streets'
generally are paved with round pebbles, and the sidewalks
are nagged ; but the latter are almost always in bad repair.

Ever since the foundation of the Peruvian capital, by
Francisco Pizarro and his fellow adventurers,* it has been
celebrated for the beauty, richness, and splendor, of its publio
edifices ; and, in this respect, it has long maintained a posi-
tion, second only to the proud city reared above the ruins of
" the Venice of the Aztecs." In passing through the Peri-
phery, or outer circle of the town, the stranger is not favora-
bly impressed by the groups of old houses, whose dirty and
dilapidated walls seem ready to topple down at the first blast
of the tempest ; but on entering the Plaza Mayor, in the cen-
tre of the business part of the city, his eye rests with delight

* Historical records differ widely, in regard to the year in which Lima was
founded; some asserting it to be 1534, and others 1535. Garcilaso of Cuzco,
Herrera, Montalvo, and Ulloa, adopt the latter date ; and Mr. Prescott, in his
Conquest of Peru, (vol. II, p. 2-1,) does the same, on the authority of Q.uintana,
and Bernabe Cobo. Dr. Von Tschudi, however, (Travels in Peru, p. 42, nota,)
says the city was founded in 1534. According to Captain Wilkes, also, (Nar-
rative, vol. I, p. 242,) the title of the book in the city hall of Lima containing the
signatures of the viceroys, fixes the date of the organization of the municipality
at 1534. There has likewise been considerable dispute in regard to the day of
the month; but it is now generally acknowledged to have been the 6th of Jan-
uary, (the day of the Epiphany,) as the original name of the city was Ciuddd
de los Reyes, (City of the Kings ;) and in Germany, and other countries on the
European Continent, the day of the Epiphany was called " the festival of the
three holy Kings." At the time of the foundation, it will be recollected, Charles
V, emperor of Germany, was also King of Spain.

114 PUBLIC BUILDINGS. [1S39.

on the lofty spires, the swelling domes, and splendid facades,
rising everywhere around him, and he then begins really to
appreciate the fact, that he is treading on " the silver soil of
Peru."

The great square forms a quadrangle, each side of which
is 510 feet long. It is unpaved, but the ground is covered
with fine sand. From each of the four corners run two
handsome streets, at right angles to one another. In the
centre of the Plaza, is a massive bronze fountain, of three
basins, forty feet high, and raised on a level table of masonry
forty feet on each side. From the middle basin rises a pil-
lar, surmounted by a figure of Fame, represented in the
altitude of spouting the water from her trumpet. In the
other basins, the water is thrown from the mouths of four
lions. The pillar and figures were cast in 1650, by the
order of the then reigning viceroy, Count de Salvatierra.

On the north side of the square, is the government palace,
a mean unsightly structure, formerly the residence of the
viceroys, but now appropriated to the courts of justice, and
# other government offices. It is a square building, and the
front facing the Plaza is disfigured by a long range of shops,
called La Rivera, above which is a balcony. On the west
side of the square, are the Cabildo, or senate-house, and the
city jail ; and on the south there is a range of private dwell-
ings, with balconies looking upon the Plaza. The cathe-
dral and the archbishop's palace occupy the east side of the
square. The latter has a fine facade, but the former is, by
far, the most imposing edifice in Lima. The foundation
stone of the cathedral was laid by Pizarro on the 18th of
January, 1534 : ninety years elapsed, however, before its
completion, and it was finally consecrated, with great pomp
ami ceremony, on the 19th of October, 1625. The remains
of its founder were deposited beneath its walls.

This edifice has a front of 186 feet, and is 320 deep. At
either corner, in front, there is an octagonal tower, 200 feet
high, resting on a base elevated 40 feet above the ground.
The multitudinous ornaments profusely scattered in and

1839.] THE CATHEDRAL. 115

about the building, detract very much from the effect that
so large a structure would naturally produce ; yet they indi-
cate the vastness of the means at the command of its projec-
tors. Says Caldcleugh, in his Travels in South America : #
" The riches which have been lavished at various times upon
the interior of this edifice, are scarcely to be credited any-
where but in a city which once paved a street with ingots of
silver to do honor to a new viceroy. The balustrades sur-
rounding the great altar, and the pipes of the organ, were of
silver. It may be mentioned, as a proof of the abundance
of silver ornaments, that in 1821, one and a half ton of silver
was taken from the churches in Lima without beinsr missed,
to meet the exigencies of the state." The columns, or pillars,
forming the balustrade, are of Ionic form, twelve feet high
and one and a half thick. Above the altar is a massive sil-
ver gilt crown. The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high,
and composed of wrought gold, set with a profusion of dia-
monds and emeralds. On either side of the altar there are
tall silver candelabra, each weighing over seven hundred
pounds. The seats and pulpit in the choir are exquisitely
carved. The interior of the cathedral is divided into three
naves, and it is paved with large tiles. The roof is richly
pannelled and carved, and rests on arches springing from a
double row of square stone pillars. On high festival days,
the priests wear robes and ornaments embroidered in gold,
and set with precious stones, to correspond with the magnifi-
cent decorations of the altar at which they minister.

Besides the cathedral, there are upwards of fifty other
churches and convents, which cover full one fourth of the
area of the city. Conspicuous among the former, are those
of San Lazaro, San Francisco, and Santo Domingo — the last
two belonging to convents of the same name. San Lazaro
boasts of a tasteful exterior, and its interior is rich, but ex-
ceedingly chaste. The Franciscan convent is the largest
monastic establishment in the city. It stands near the Plaza
Mayor, and covers, including all its buildings, two entire

* Vol. II, p. 56.

116 MONASTIC ESTABLISHMENTS. [1839.

quadras. Its church, next in size to the cathedral, is deco-
rated with great splendor. The convent of Santo Domingo
is probably the wealthiest in Peru, — its yearly revenue, de-
rived mostly from the ground-rents of houses in Lima, exceed-
ing seventy thousand dollars. The steeple of the church of
Santo Domingo is the loftiest in the city ; it is 188 feet high,
and is distinctly visible at the distance of three leagues. The
interior of the church is gorgeously adorned, and its grand
altar is almost as splendid as that of the cathedral.

There are sixteen nunneries in Lima, the largest of which
is the Monasterio de la Concepcion : it has an annual revenue
of upwards of one hundred thousand dollars, bat is more
celebrated for its wealth, than for the piety or vestal perfect-
ness of its inmates. There are several establishments, how-
ever, in which the conventual rules are rigidly observed.

In addition to the convents and nunneries, there are beate-
rios, which pious women who desire to lead a cloistered life
without taking the veil may enter and quit at pleasure ; and
also, edsas de cxercicio, into which females retire during Lent,
to perform nets of penance. For the other sex, there are
cells in the convent of Recoleto.

Lima also possesses eleven public hospitals and two found-
ling asylums. The two largest hospitals, San Andres and
Santa Aria, contain nearly four hundred beds each. At-
tached to San Andres is a botanic garden, and adjoining it is
the medical college of San Fernando, established in 1809.

The second large square in the city is the public market-
place. Before the war of Independence it was known as the
Plaza de la Inquisition; it is now called the Plazucla de.
la Independencia. On this square are the Palace of the In-
quisition, now occupied as a jail and a store-house for provi-
sions, and the University. The latter was founded under a
decree of Charles V, dated in 1551. The exterior of the
building is by no means imposing, but it has a spacious
quadrangular court, entered by a lofty door, along the sides
of which are pillared corridors. On the walls of the corri-
dors there are allegorical paintings in fresco, representing the

1S39.] UNIVERSITY. 117

different branches of science, underneath which are inscribed
apposite quotations from classical authors. The lecture rooms
open into the corridors ; and in the left angle of the court are
great double doors opening into the Aula, or principal hall.
On the walls of the Aula are hung portraits of distinguished
scholars. The university is partly supported by congress,
and partly by the produce of an annual bull-bait! There
are only between thirty and fifty students, and most of the
professorships are mere sinecures. Besides the university,
there are several colleges in the city, one of which (San Car-
los) has about one hundred students. There are also good
Lancasterian, Latin, and primary schools, and a number of
private ones conducted by Europeans. Notwithstanding the
many causes, growing out of the social and political condi-
tion of the country, which have a tendency to check or hinder
intellectual improvement, the cause of education is slowly,
perhaps, yet steadily progressing.

In the vicinity of the square of Independence is the Mint,
at which from two to two and a half millions of dollars are
annually coined. Near the convent of San Pedro, the ancient
Colegio maximo of the Jesuits, is the National Library,
founded in 1821, one of the first fruits of the Revolution. It
contains not far from thirty thousand volumes, embracing
many valuable theological and historical works, and is open
to the public daily, Sundays and Fridays excepted. In the
left wing of the library building is the national museum, still
in its infancy.

Lima likewise boasts of a theatre, more notorious for the
myriads of fleas that infest it, than for the skill and talent
displayed in its performances ; a coliseo de g-allos, or cock-
pit ; a tennis-court ; and an amphitheatre, Plaza firme del
Acho, in the suburb of San Lazaro, where bull-fights are
held.

With the exception of the suburb of San Lazaro, and a
part of the north side of the city proper, Lima is surrounded
by a brick wall, between eighteen and twenty feet high, from
ten to twelve feet thick at the base, and nine feet at the top

118 SPANISH COLONIZATION. 1S39.]

It was originally built in 1585, and repaired in 1807 ; but it
is now in a state of complete dilapidation, and furnishes an-
other sad commentary on the history of Spanish colonization.
Similar mementos of past magnificence, of the faded splen-
dor of the viceroyalty, arrest the attention full often in the
streets of Lima. To the philosopher and historian, these de-
caying memorials of a by-gone age furnish matter for serious
thought and reflection.

Nearly a hundred years elapsed, after Pizarro and his com-
panions unfurled the victorious bander a of Castile and Leon,
over the ancient palaces of the Incas of Peru, before the Pil-
grim Founders of the Colony of Massachusetts landed on the
rock-bound coast of Accomack.* The former found a land
blushing in loveliness and beauty, possessing a genial tem-
perature, yielding with scanty labor an abundant product of
luscious fruits and valuable grains, and abounding in silver,
and gold, and precious stones ; countless galeons, freighted
with the treasures which they poured into the coffers of the
mother country, soon crossed the sea, and seemed to fore-
shadow a long and prosperous career for those who should
come after them. The latter, fleeing from the tyranny and
persecution of kingcraft and priestcraft, were welcomed to a
bleak and inhospitable clime, by the howling of the wintry
wind and the shrill war-whoop of the murderous savage. —
Centuries have passed away: — indolence and effeminacy on
the one hand, have ended in corruption and anarchy; and
industry and enterprise on the other, have terminated in hap-
piness and prosperity. The descendants of the Puritans have
not only preserved their patrimonial inheritance unimpaired ;
they have beautified and improved it to an unexampled de-
gree ; they have carried the arts and institutions of their
forefathers from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The offspring
of the Spanish colonists already begin t<> experience the evils
springing from wealth too easily acquired ; enervated by lux-
ury and licentiousness, though still clinging with superstitious

* Accomack was the ancient Indian name of Plymouth.

1839.] FORTIFICATIONS. 119

veneration to the shrines of their ancestors, they lack the
spirit to preserve them from the ravages of premature decay ;
their peculiar traits and characteristics as a people are fast
disappearing ; their trade is in the hands of foreign merchants ;
and their government, nominally a republic, is, in fact, the
worst kind of oligarchy.

Formerly, the city wall of Lima had nine gates. But six
of these are now open, the remainder having been walled up.
At each of the gates is stationed a custom-house guard,
mainly to prevent the introduction of unstamped silver. The
wall was also designed for a fortification, and was once put
in a condition to be mounted with artillery. It is now en-
tirely valueless in this respect, and the only work of defence
really worthy the name, is the pretty little castle of Santa
Catalina, at the eastern side of the city, between the gates
of Cocharcas and Guadelupe, and about two hundred yards
from the wall. The castle is flanked by two bastions, and
its internal arrangements exhibit more of cleanliness and
regularity than are usually met with.

Few of the private houses in Lima are more than one
story high, and those exceeding that have the upper walls of
cane, or wattled reeds, plastered over with clay, and white-
washed or painted. The lower walls are usually built of
adobes. The better class of dwellings correspond with one
another in the style of building. The fronts are mostly quite
plain, but occasionally a house may be seen with a finely
ornamented facade. There are two doors in front : one called
the azagiian, forming the principal entrance, and the other
leading to the cochera, or coach-house. Above the door to the
cochera, or on the side of the main door, there is often a small
chamber, with a window, closed by a wooden railing, looking
towards the street. At this window the ladies of the family
frequently place themselves, to see and be seen, and if young
and pretty, to be admired, even if they do not admire in their
turn. Entering the azaguan, you find yourself in a broad
court, called the patio, on either side of which there are small
rooms Faring the azaguan is the main dwelling-house,

120 PRIVATE HOUSES. 1839 J

usually surrounded by a balcony. Two large folding doors
lead into the sola, or hall, which is generally carpeted with
straw matting, and furnished with a sofa, a hammock, and
several chairs. From the hall a glazed door opens into the
cuddro, or drawing room ; among the wealthier classes this
room is always elegantly furnished. Adjoining the cuddro,
are the sleeping rooms, the dining room, and nursery. All
these apartments communicate with the traspdtio, an inner
court yard laid out as a garden, the walls of which are taste-
fully adorned with decorative paintings in fresco, some illus-
trating scenes from scripture, others the festival of the Aman-
caes, and others representing various subjects, according to
the taste of the painter or the fancy of his employer. Beyond
the traspdtio is the kitchen and stable, — the latter often noth-
ing more than a mere yard, or corral.

The roofs are uniformlv flat. The best houses have a larsfe

* CD

terrace, called the azotea, over the sdla and cuddro, which is
paved with free stone, or thin baked bricks, and surrounded
by a railing. The azotea serves as a play-ground for the
children, is ornamented with flower pots, and covered with
an awning to shade it from the sun. Where there is an
upper story, the roof is composed of mats and bamboos, cov-
ered over with mortar or a light layer of earth. As in Cal-
lao, the windows of some of the rooms are in the roof. The '
other windows, generally few in number, are on each side of
the house-door ; they are ornamented with casings of carved
work, in stone or wood, and often have richly gilt lattices.

It was once the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves
dug within the churches, but the heat of the climate forbade
the continuance of this custom, and early in the present cen-
tury, a general cemetery, styed the Panteon, was established
outside the walls, on the eastern side of the city, on the high
road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It is a square inclos-
ure, neatly laid out in walks and gardens. The surrounding
walls are filled with niches for the reception of corpses. Bur-
ials are not permitted to take place after noon. The bodies
of the rich are deposited in coffins, but those of the poor are

1839.] INHABITANTS OF LIMA. 121

provided with winding sheets only. Unslacked lime is ap-
plied to the remains to accelerate their decay, and to prevent
contaminating the atmosphere with noxious gases.

Various estimates have been formed in regard to the popu-
lation of Lima. The wide difference in the accounts that
have been published, may, probably, be attributed to the re-
markable fluctuations that have taken place since the Revo-
lution. The most reliable statement in regard to the number
of inhabitants may be found in the tax register drawn up in
1836, under the protectorate of Santa Cruz, in which it is
said to be a little over fifty-four thousand. It is very evi-
dent, however, that the population has diminished, rather
than increased, during the last forty years. In 1810 there
were said to be nearly ninety thousand inhabitants in the
city, and about seventy thousand in 1826. No one familiar
with the history of the country, or the scenes which have
transpired there, need wonder at this. Earthquakes and
epidemic diseases have swept away their thousands ; many
more have fallen victims to the social and political anarchy
which have prevailed, to the bloody war of Independent ,
and the sanguinary tumults that have since disturbed tl
peace of the country ; and numbers of families belonging t
the ancien regime have either voluntarily expatriated them-
selves, or been included in some compulsory decree of ban-
ishment.

The present population of the city is made up of white
Creoles, the descendants of foreigners, principally Spaniards ;
Indians, descended from the ancient Peruvians ; and people
of color, consisting of the offspring of whites and Indians,
called Mestizos, — of whites and Mulattoes, called Cuarterons,
— of Indians and Negroes, called Chinos, — and of Negroes
and Mulattoes, or Mestizos, called Zambos. To these are to
be added about five thousand slaves, mostly Zambos, and not
far from one thousand ecclesiastics, lay and monastic.

(3.) Among the other principal towns in Peru, are Cuzco,
the ancient capital of the Incas, Arequipa, Cerro di Pasco,
Guamanga, Huaolio, Huancavelica, and Truxillo, or Tru-

6

122 cuzco. [1839.

jillo. Cuzco is about four hundred miles from Lima, in a
southeasterly direction. It is situated in an extensive valley,
at the foot of some lofty spurs of the Andes, nearly twelve
thousand feet above the level of the ocean. Its population is
about twenty-five thousand, and consists mostly of Indians.
They are exceedingly industrious, and are celebrated for
their skill in embroidery, painting and sculpture. Cuzco is
famed for its magnificent ruins, particularly those of the
Temple of the Sun, and for its splendid religious edifices.
The cathedral church and convent of St. Augustine are said
to be the finest in South America. The Dominican convent
is also an imposing structure, and is raised on walls that
originally formed part of the Temple of the Sun ; the high
altar, according to Uiloa, standing on the very spot occupied
by the golden image of the Peruvian deity. There are six
other convents in the city, five churches, three monasteries,
four hospitals, a university, and three collegiate schools.
Most of the private dwellings were either constructed before
the conquest of the city by Pizarro, in 1554, or have been
built of the stones that once formed part of the edifices of the
ancient Peruvians. On a hill north of the town, are the ruins
of a large fortress, principally constructed of the angular Cy-
clopean stones so frequently found among the ruins of Eastern
cities. A great part of the town was destroyed, during the
siege shortly after it was taken possession of by Pizarro, but
there is still left much to interest the scholar and antiqua-
rian.

Arequipa has a population of thirty thousand souls. It
lies at the foot of Mount Ornate, on the road leading from
Lima to the south, thirty miles east of the Pacific, and two
hundred miles southwest from Cuzco. It was founded by
order of Pizarro, in 1536. The houses are strongly and neatly
built, though, on account of the prevalence of earth quali
but one story in height. A cathedral, a fine bronze fountain
in the Plaza Mayor, a college, and several convents, are the
only objects of particular attraction in the city. Its foreign
trade is carried on through its port, Mollendo. Though this

1S39.] CERR0 DI PASCO. 123

town is elevated upwards of seven thousand feet above the
level of the sea, its environs are highly cultivated and remark-
ably fertile. Beautiful groves and gardens dot the landscape ;
hedges and fruit trees, trimmed en espalier, are occasionally
to be seen ; and the shrubs and flowers exhibit a luxuriance
of foliage, and a gorgeous brilliancy of color, not surpassed in
any other locality in Peru.

For more than two centuries, Cerro di Pasco has been
famed throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It con-
tains, at times, when the mines yield abundantly, some eighteen
thousand inhabitants, and at others not more than five or six
thousand. It is situated in an irregular basin-shaped hollow
in the table land of Bombon, on the mountain chain of Ola-
chin, and is 13,673 feet above the level of the sea. At a dis-
tance, the town presents quite a picturesque appearance, but
a nearer approach dissolves the illusion. The streets are
filthy, and mere narrow and crooked lanes. Some few of the
dwellings are European in style, and well-built; yet in close
proximity to them are clusters of miserable adobe huts and
hovels, covered with thatch, but nearly destitute of chimneys
and windows. The town is so burrowed under, by the nu-
merous adits leading to the main lodes, some of which are
almost fathomless and usually half full of water, that a ram-
ble through it, even in broad daylight, is attended with no
little danger.

Two hundred and ten miles southeast of Lima, on the
road to Cuzco, is Guamanga, formerly called San Juan de
la Victoria, or de la Frontera. It was founded by Pizarro,
and stands in the middle of an extensive and beautiful plain.
The houses are constructed with neatness and taste, mainly
of stone, and have pretty orchards and gardens attached to
them. It has several large squares, and the streets are spa-
cious and convenient. The population is said to be fifteen
thousand. There is a cathedral in the city, and several other
churches and convents. The climate is very fine, and the
situation is regarded as being quite healthy. Huacho is a
small village, containing some five thousand inhabitants,

124 OTHER IMPORTANT TOWNS. [1839.

which, since the war of Independence, has been dignified
with the title of city. It is situated on the coast north of
Lima. Four fifths of the population are Indians, and the
remainder mestizos. The natives employ their time in fish-
ing, agriculture, and the rearing of poultry. Every Friday,
large caravans of Indian women, mounted on mules, start
for Lima, with fowls, ducks, and turkeys. Two bunches of
fowls, consisting of from fifteen to twenty each, are attached
by every chola to the pommel of her saddle, one hanging
down on either side. About two days and a half arc re-
quired to perform the journey, and the poor creatures arc
kept all the while in this position, except when the caravan
is halted.

Huancavelica lies about midway between Lima and Gua-
manga. Its population is estimated at about twelve thou-
sand. This town has long been celebrated for its rich quick-
silver mines ; they have been worked for almost three hun-
dred years, and are still highly productive. Truxillo is the
principal town in North Peru, and contains not far from ten
thousand inhabitants. It lies on the coast, and was named
after the birth place of the conqueror of Peru, Francisco
Pizarro.

(4.) The handful of Spaniards, commanded by Pizarro
and Almagro, entered Peru in 1582. Availing themselves
of the dissensions among the Indian tribes then occupying
the country, as Hernando Cortes and his warriors had aire
done in ancient Azteca, they at first formed an alliance wil i
Atahualpa, or Atabalipa, the reigning Inca, and afterwards
deprived him of his liberty and put him to death. This d
of cruelty having been perpetrated, the whole countrj
rapidly overrun and reduced tP submission. It, was after-
wards formed into a vioeroyalty, and continue i subject to :.. •
dominion of Spain until the year 1821. The inhabitants
were long firm in their loyalty, and the royalists were eve
ually put down, only by a strong Chilian army under '
Martin, in cooperation with the Peruvian patriots. The in
pendence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima, on the 28th of

L839.] WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 125

July, 1S21, under the auspices of San Martin, who was de-
clared protector of the new republic and invested with dicta-
torial power.

In 1823, San Martin retired, and Riva-Aguero was pro-
claimed president. At the same time, General Jose La
Mar was placed at the head of the Peruvian division of the
great liberating army under General Bolivar. The Spaniards
royalists had now rallied, and the patriot garrison of Cal-
hoisted Spanish colors, in February, 1824. Aided by
serai Bolivar. — then president of Bolivia, and clothed
with supreme military power in Peru, under the title of Li-
bert adur, — and a strong Colombian force under General Sucre,
the republicans firmly maintained their ground. Meanwhile.
Riva-Aguero had been driven from the presidency by Boli-
var, and a new constitution formed on the model of that of
the United States had been adopted, which was not to take
effect, however, till the expiration of his dictatorship.

After sustaining a number of reverses, the patriots were
finally victorious over their enemies, who were defeated by
Bolivar at Junin, on the 6th of August, 1824, and by Gen-
erals Sucre and La Mar, on the 9th of December following,
at Ayacucho. This secured the independence of Peru, al-
though the Spaniards, under General Rodil, remained in
possession of the fortress at Callab till the 22d of January,
1826, when they were forced, by famine, to surrender. Dur-
ing the whole struggle for liberty, the country was in a most
wretched condition. Civil war, at all times dreadful, had
little here to mitigate its horrors. Life and property were
insecure ; murders and assassinations were of frequent occur-
rence ; and the most glaring outrages were committed with
impunity. Reckless cruelty was exhibited, alike by the gen-
eral in the field, and the statesman in the cabinet ; and the
prevailing looseness in private morals was only equalled by
the licentiousness openly exhibited in public life. No change
for the better took place while Bolivar maintained his author-
ity as dictator.

In January, 1827, the Peruvians revolted, and freed them-

126 CIVIL DISSENSIONS. [1S39.

selves from the presence of the dictator and his armed legions.
The constitution established by Bolivar was now abrogated,
and that of 1823 restored ; and General La Mar, — a man
not more pure and honest in private life, than just and blame-
less in bis public career, — was then elevated to the presidency
by the Peruvian Congress. La Mar remained at the head
of affairs till June, 1829, when he was deposed by General
La Fuente, in consequence, as was alleged, of the imbecility
displayed by the former at the battle of Tarqui,in the month
of February previous, at which the Peruvians had been de-
feated by the Colombians under General Sucre. But, in
fact, La Mar was too pure-minded to hold the reins of gov
vernment, in a country where military sucoess was the only
passport to public favor, and among a people so easily duped
by the demagogues who readily pandered to their vices and
ministered to their corrupt tastes and depraved appetites.
The deposition was, really, the result of a conspiracy be-
tween General Gamarra, through whose treachery or coward-
ice the battle of Tarqui was lost, General La Fuente, and
General Santa Cruz, then the President of Bolivia. The
conspirators were completely successful in obtaining the con-
trol of the government. In August, 1829, Gamarra was
elected President, and La Fuente Vice President, of Peru.

Gamarra remained in office, though much dissatisfaction
was evinced in regard to the mode in which he administered
the government, till 1833, when he resigned, shortly before
the expiration of his constitutional term of service. It was
evidently his intention to establish a strong central govern-
ment and place himself at its head; but his friend and minion,
Bermtidez, whom he supported for the presidency as his suc-
cessor, being himself ineligible for a second consecutive term,
was defeated by General Orbejoso. The latter, owing to the
distracted state of the country, called in the assistance of
Santa Cruz, who was made Supreme Protector of Peru. Ho
divided the country into two separate republics, North and
South Peru, but they were ultimately reunited. The war
with Chili ensued ; Gamarra was again restored to power

1839.] POPULATION OF PERU. 127

at the point of the bayonet, and in 1839 Santa Cruz was
driven into Bolivia. Peru was then involved in a war with
Bolivia, which was at length brought to a close, through the
mediation of Chili, by the treaty of Puno, concluded on the
7th of June, 1842. Since that date One military chieftain
after another has gained the ascendency, and assumed to di
rect the government. At this time General Castilla exercises
the functions of the presidential office.* He belongs to the
centralists, but the plan of government they propose to adopt,
if honestly and justly administered, is probably the best cal-
culated to secure the internal peace and tranquillity of the
country, at least while so great a laxity of morals prevails in
public and private life, and the masses seem so unwilling, or
so unable, to comprehend the great principles of self-govern-
ment.

(5.) Different estimates have been made, and different ac-
counts published, in regard to the population of Peru. It
cannot vary far from 1,700,000. Full three fourths of the
inhabitants are Indians, or of Indian extraction, and the re-
mainder are white Creoles and Negroes. The white Creoles
are of moderate stature, yet well-formed, and slender in figure.
Their complexions are almost colorless, but usually quite fair ;
their hair and eyes are black ; and their features strongly
marked. The men are as feeble in mind as in person ; they
look prematurely old ; they are effeminate, irascible, incapa-
ble of long-continued physical or mental exertion, and as im-
patient of contradiction as a Milesian. Though not entirely
destitute of frankness, yet they know how to dissemble. They
are just the men for demagogues to excite and inflame; just
the men for emeutes and conspiracies. Smoking, gaming,
and cock-fighting, are the chief occupations of their lives, yet,
withal, are they singularly abstinent in the use of intoxicat-

* President Castilla is by no means firmly seated in power. Several conspir-
acies have recently been formed, through, the instrumentality of Generals San
Roman and Torrico, both prominent federalists, and noted revolutionists, to over-
turn the existing state of affairs. One project was set on foot as late as the month
of February, 1849, but the conspirators were arrested before they had time to
mature their plans.

L28 THE WHITE CREOLES. [1839.

ing drink's. The wealthy devote their whole time to idleness
and amusement, and the poor, who are compelled to earn
their own livelihood, pursue some light handicraft, which will
afford them plenty of leisure for gossip and recreation.

But what Nature has denied to the men, she has bestowed,
with a liberal hand, upon the Creole women. In the streets
of Lima, at almost every hour of the day, you may discover
rich and rare specimens of female loveliness and beauty. The
fair Limefia can boast of a complexion of velvety softness
white and clear as the purest Parian marble, and beneath
whose polished surface the delicate tracery of each vein and
artery is distinctly visible. Eye-brows exquisitely pencilled,
and long silken lashes, shade a pair of orbs dark as the moon-
less night, that charm and fascinate, alike when kindling
in anger, or glowing with the fire of an unworthy passion, as
when beaming with the blessed light of an honest and holy
love. Masses of luxuriant hair, black as the plumage of the
raven, fall in long wavy plaits down the finely arched neck,
and over the nicely rounded bust and shoulders. Teeth of
pearly whiteness, a form of small but elegant proportions, and
a neatly turned foot and ankle, complete the picture, and
form a tout ensemble not often seen in other climes, and,
when once seen, not easily forgotten.

To these personal attractions must be added, a captivating
deportment, ease and grace of manners, amiability of temper,
and, generally speaking, a far greater degree of intelligence
than is found in the other sex. The glowing breath of the
tropics, indeed, has given to every passion and emotion, a
depth and intensity not common in colder countries, and if
the Peruvian seiiorita hates, the feeling is not idly manifested ;
but if she loves, it is with an unselfish abandon, a generous
and trustful confidence, and a whole-souled devotion, that
\ould startle the prudishness of northern dames and belles.
One knowing anything of the national character, would not
be apt to fancy that the Creole women were notable house-
keepers. In fact, almost everything is left to the domestics,
particularly in Lima ; and but little attention is paid to clean-

1839.] PERUVIAN LADIES. 129

liness, in private dwellings, except in the sella and cutidro,
the more public apartments. More yegard for personal neat-
ness, however, is exhibited. The Limena cleans her teeth
several times a day, with the raiz de dientes (root for the
teeth) ; considerable time is spent at the toilet ; and perfum-
ery is lavishly used. The climate naturally produces indo-
lence ; and, while at home, she is fond of reclining on a sofa,
or swinging in a hammock, and, at the same time, enjoying a
plate of sweetmeats, or smoking a cigar. Visiting, promen-
ading, the theatre, the ball, and the concert, occupy the rest
of her time. When she has passed the prime of life, and
her beauty begins to fade, the missal takes the place of
the mirror, and she devotes herself to works of piety and
charity.

Travellers in Spain have often remarked upon the fondness
of the people for scriptural names. This custom is carried
to a greater extent even, in Peru, than in the mother coun-
try. Marias, Conceptions, Asuncions, Natividads, and
Josefas, are quite common. A girl born on Candlemas-day
is called Candeldria. If a child's birth day is the first day
of the year, it is called Jesus, or Jesusito, if a male, and
Jesusita if a female. A married woman does not assume
the surname of her husband, except as an addition to her
own family name ; as for instance, if Dona Maria Dolores
Castilla should marry Don Lafuente, she would style herself
Doha Maria Dolores Castilla de Lafuente.

Little more can be said of the mixed races, than that they
resemble similar classes the world over. The bad qualities
of their progenitors are more frequently copied than their
good qualities ; their vices are pretty sure to be inherited, but
their virtues generally prove a lapsed legacy. In the remote
districts, descendants of the ancient Indian tribes may occa-
sionally be found, who preserve unimpaired the nobler and
better traits and characteristics of their ancestors, but it is
oftener the case that they exhibit the demoralization and cor-
ruption consequent on their intercourse with the whites.
The mestizos constitute the most active and enterprising

6*

130 THE MIXED RACES. [1839

part of the population, but the zambos are lazy, sensual, and
vicious.

The divers shades of blood, and the peculiar and distinct
characteristics, found among the different races composing
the population of Peru, have tended in a great measure to
produce the disaffection and turbulence which have so long
prevailed in the country. For many years, it has been every-
where known as

"The field of freedom, faction, fame, and blood;"

and it will, doubtless, continue to remain so, till the prejudice
of birth and caste is done away. Something has been already
gained in this respect, and we have much to hope for, so far
as regards the future, in the prevailing religion. The Cathol-
icism of Rome is a sad leveller of distinctions, out of the pale
of the church ; and its worship teaches — nowhere more forci-
bly than in Peru — the important truth, that there is a power
before which the hereditary taskmaster and the hereditary
bondsman are alike equal.* In Lima, when the great bell
of the cathedral announces the raising of the host, during the
performance of high mass, business and conversation of all
kinds are suspended; every sound is hushed ; the humble tire-
woman uncovers her head, and kneels beside the proud senora
whom she serves — and the old decrepit beggar utters the
same prayer with the haughty cavalier who bears a prince's
ransom on his shoulders. A similar effect is witnessed, at
evening, as the church bells sound for the orapion; and
when the prayers are ended, each one makes the sign of the
cross, and salutes his nearest neighbor, — 'whether he be slave
or freeman, rich or poor, — with the kindly greeting, " Buenas
noches !"t

Until quite recently, the prevailing style of dress in Peru
was Spanish, blended, in the interior, and among the lower

* The charter of Independence says that " no man is born a slave in Peru •,"
but the National Congress have, practically, legislated to the contrary. There
are between four and five thousand negro slaves in Lima alone.

| Good night !

1839.] STYLE OF DRESS. 131

classes throughout the country, with an occasional imitation
of Indian costume ; but latterly, according to Lieutenant
Revere, " English tailors have transmogrified the men, an 1
French milliners have played the deuce with the women."*
The cholo still adheres to his poncho, and his embroidere 1
jerkin, or zamdrra; the Indian woman does not lay aside
her gay-colored bay eta ; the mestizo continues to display his
vest and breeches of shining velvet, decked with bright fili-
gree buttons ; but the prevailing fashions, among the upper
classes, are French and English, and these are fast extend-
ing to every rank and condition.

At Lima and Truxillo, a singular dress, peculiar to those
two cities, is worn by the ladies, at church, in religious pro-
cessions, in their promenades, and sometimes during a morn-
ing call ; but it is never seen in a ball room or theatre. This
dress consists of the Sdya y Mdnto, — literally, a petticoat
and veil. There are two kinds of sdyas — the sdya ajustdda,
and the sdya culepa, or .sdya desplegdda. The former is a
skirt, or petticoat, of thick silk, either of a brown or some
other dark color, which is plaited at the top and bottom, in
small fluted folds, drawn close together at the waist, but
widening as they descend. It fits tightly to the form, and
nothing could be better devised to display the symmetry of
the wearer's limbs, unless it were complete male attire. It,
of course, prevents any rapid movement in walking, though
it does not reach quite as low as the ankle, — the inventor,
probably, not caring entirely to hide the tasteful chaussure.
This garment, however, is rapidly going out of date, — few
really modest females making use of it, — and the sdya desple-
gdda is taking its place. The latter is plaited close at the
waist, but from thence downwards, it presents the appear-
ance of a hooped petticoat.

The mdnto is a veil of thick black silk, fastened at the
back of the waist, where it joins the sdya, by a narrow band.
It is thence brought over the shoulders and head, and drawn
over the face, so as to leave a small triangular space, in

* Tour of Duty in California, p. 11.

132 POPULAR AMUSEMENTS. [1839

which glistens the eye of the wearer, like a diamond set in
*ts. Sometimes a rich shawl is thrown over the shoulders,
eneath the mdnto. The folds of the veil are confined by a
mall hand, always neatly gloved ; in the other hand is car-
ied a richly embroidered handkerchief, or a pretty nosegay.

Those who wear this strange costume are called tapddas.
Its original design, it is said, was to secure privacy and pre-
vent intrusion; but, of late, it has been sadly perverted, and
is now a convenient shield and cover for the demirep and
intrigant. Many are the tales related, in the gay capital of
Peru, of jealous lovers and husbands outwitted, — and of frail
friars, and frailer nuns, forgetting the solemn vows which
they had taken, and soiling forever the vestal purity and per-
fectness of their high calling.

All classes in Peru are passionately fond of amusements
of every kind, — of dancing, theatrical performances, and musi-
cal entertainments. Religious processions may likewise be
classed in the same category, as many seem to regard them
in that light. The festivals of Corpus Christi, Santo Do-
mingo, and San Francisco, are celebrated, in the cities, with
great pomp and ceremony ; and from the highest to the low-
est, the brilliant pageant is enjoyed with unusual zest. On
St. John's day, (24th of June,) a grand festival is held by the
lower classes in Lima — and not, as Captain Wilkes, perhaps
hastily, conjectured, by the population generally* — in the
valley, or plain, of Amancaes, which is about half a mile
northwest of the city, and derives its name from a beautiful
yellow lily, whose blossoms are liberally sprinkled over its
surface at the time of the fete. It is merely a drunken bout,
however ; drinking, gaming, gormandism, and dancing the
obscene samacueca, constituting the principal attractions of
this Peruvian Floralia.

As has heretofore been stated, the white Creole in Peru, is
not much addicted to the use of intoxicating drinks. When
he takes wine, it is usually some sweet and light kind, e.'id
is partaken of sparingly. But the mixed races, and the peo-

* Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. I, p. 241.

1839.] MODE OF TRAVELLING. 133

pie generally in the interior of the country, are not so abstem-
ious as those who reside in the cities and along the coast.
The mestizo loves his aguardiente, and the cholo his chica.
Smoking is an almost universal practice among all classes
and sexes. Among the other stimulants made use of, is
coca. This is a shrub extensively cultivated in the moun-
tainous districts of Peru, the leaves of which, when dried,
are mixed with burnt lime. It forms a powerful stimulating
narcotic, which is used as a masticatory. Like opium, it
brings on an apathy to surrounding objects, but its effects are
more pernicious, and a confirmed coca-chewer, or coquero, is
with difficulty reclaimed.*

The private habitations of the Peruvians, in the interior,
resemble those in Chili. Those of the better class are built
of adobes, one story high, with thatched roofs ; but the In-
dians, and the poorer inhabitants, live in miserable hovels
constructed of cane and mud, which are dirty and filthy in
the extreme. In the northern part of the country, among
the sandy lomas, or hills, which are so common in that sec-
tion, houses may often be seen that are erected on posts, from
eight to ten feet high, in order to render them cool and airy,
and to protect the occupants from the sand-flies. The ma-
terial used in their construction is a species of reed, and the
roofs are thatched with leaves.

Mules and llamas are the principal carriers of burdens in
Peru, and travelling is performed, either on horseback, or,
where the roads will admit, in antique coaches of Spanish
patterns, or in the calesa, a small chaise. Since the intro-
duction of steam navigation, there have been steamers to
accommodate those persons wishing to go from one port on
the coast to another. In Lima, omnibuses have become quite
common, and they have almost superseded the other modes
of riding in the city, and between it and Callao.

(6.) Two great mountain chains, running parallel with
each other and the coast, intersect Peru, and divide it into

* The annual value of the coca prepared in Peru and Bolivia, is estimated at
two and a half millions of dollars.

134 TOPOGRAPHY. [1839

three regions These two ranges are called the Cordillera
and the Andes. Strictly speaking, the Cordillera is the chain
nearest the coast, and the Andes the eastern chain ; but the
terms are now used indiscriminately. The strip between the
coast and the first chain, is from sixty to seventy miles wide ;
some portions of it are covered with dry, barren sand ; others
are less arid ; and, here and there, are small oases, like that
in which Lima is built, which are exceedingly fertile. The
space inclosed between the two mountain ridges, is called
the Sierra. This tract is partly occupied by the cross ranges
intersecting the two principal chains, and by huge naked
rocks ; partly by wide-spread table lands, known as the Puna,
or Despoblddo, which are mostly uninhabited, and scantily
covered with sickly looking yellow grass, stunted quhiua
trees, and large patches of the Ratanhia shrub ; and partly
by expansive valleys, which make a suitable return for the
labor of the husbandman.* But little is known of the third
region, along the base of the eastern mountain chain, although
the old inhabitants chiefly dwelt there, and obtained from the
mines the metal which they manufactured into the curious
forms and shapes that aroused the cupidity of Pizarro and his
followers.

The Peruvian coast is rugged and lofty, throughout its
whole extent, except in the northern provinces, where some
miles of a loose sandy desert occasionally intervene between
the high lands and the Pacific. There are but few secure har-
bors in the whole sixteen hundred miles of sea coast. Those
of Callao, Payta, Sechiira, Salina, Pisco, Islay, and Iquiqua,
are esteemed the best. At Truxillo and Lambaqcque, there
are mere open roadsteads, which, in rough weather, are ex-
tremely insecure. On account of the great depth of the water,
vessels are generally obliged to anchor within a quarter of a
mile of the shore. Where there are no moles, or piers, the
operation of landing, usually effected by means of the balsa,
is very dangerous, in consequence of the heavy surf occa-

* It is very evident from the appearance of these valleys, that they once sus-
tained a much larger population than they now do.

1839.] CLIMATE. 135

sioned by the mighty swell almost constantly rolling in upon
the shore.

Peru cannot boast of any great rivers. The Rimac merely
carries off the melted snow of the mountains ; it has not suf-
ficient force to break through the sand-bar at its mouth, and
its waters percolate through it in the most lazy manner im-
aginable. But the largest tributaries of the Amazon, the
Tunguragua, the Huallaga, and the Ucayale, have their
origin here. The Tunguragua has its source in the small
lake, Llauricocha, lying north of Cerro di Pasco. There is
another lake, the Titicaca, the largest and most elevated in
South America, situated partly in Peru and partly in Bo-
livia, which abounds in fish, but its navigation is not free
from danger, as it is liable to sudden squalls and storms ;
and there are several smaller lakes in different parts of the
country. The sources of the Amazon are considerable streams,
and if the occasional obstructions were removed, they could
be navigated for some distance, by steam-vessels of light
draught.

In most of the provinces of Peru, the climate is said to be
proverbially fine, but the bills of mortality indicate that this
must be taken with some reservations and exceptions, though,
upon the whole, it may be pronounced salubrious. There
are two seasons during the year — the wet and the dry.
From April till October, the coast lands are covered during
the morning, and often throughout the day, by a dense fog or
mist, which serves to moisten the ground, instead of the rain
which nature has denied to it. Towards the north the fogs
grow lighter, and in the extreme northern province rain some-
times falls ; and when this blessing is vouchsafed, the ar entiles,
or arid sands, are soou covered with an exuberant vegetation.
En October and November, the mists begin to rise, and, by a
gradual transition, the dry season, which commences in De-
cember and terminates in March, is at length introduced.
During the summer on the coast, heavy rains, often accom-
panied with thunder, fall among the montarias, or mountains,
in the interior. The rivers and smaller streams now rush

136 EARTHQUAKES. [1839

down to the ocean swollen far beyond their customary size,
and thus furnish abundant means for irrigation.

Notwithstanding its proximity to the equator, the temper-
ature in the coast region is not so high as would naturally be
supposed. The prevailing winds are from the southwest, and
are very cooling. West winds are not common, but they
sometimes blow with terrific violence, and when they break
against the mountains, often form dangerous whirlwinds.
The northern winds, or, rather, currents of air, — for they
can hardly be called winds, — are very sultry and oppressive.
At night, the land breezes take the place of the sea breezes
that blow during the day. The mean temperature of the
year in Lima is about 70°, but there are villages in its im-
mediate vicinity, subject to the same atmospherical influences,
where it is still higher. The great humidity of the atmos-
phere upon the coast gives rise to severe fevers, and the
change from the damp to the dry season frequently produces
violent attacks of dysentery. Colics, bilious and inflamma-
tory diseases, and small-pox, are also very common.

The most agreeable climate in Peru is probably to be found
in the extensive elevated valleys, between the Cordillera and
Andes, and the paramos, or ranges connecting the two great
ridges. The valley of Cuzco has long been admired for its
fine climate, though it is ten thousand feet above the level
of the sea. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence in the
country, and have repeatedly been attended with the most
disastrous consequences. The entire town of Callao, and the
greater part of Lima, were destroyed by an earthquake, in
1746. Shocks are felt — more or less powerful — every year.
Since 1746, there have been two destructive earthquakes, in
1806 and 1828, and another is confidently predicted as being
soon to take place, by those persons in Lima and Callao who
are fond of relating marvels, and divining signs and wonders.

Were Peru deprived of all beside, she would still have
much to boast of, in the vast mineral wealth concealed be-
neath the frowning buttresses of the Andes. For centuries
she has poured forth an almost unbroken current of gold and

1839.] mining. 137

silver, but the supply is not yet exhausted. Stories border-
ing upon the marvellous have long been told in regard to
these precious deposits, but though they have not, and will
not be realized, they are not wholly fictitious."*

Silver has always been the principal mineral obtained in
Peru. The most productive mines of this metal now wrought,
are at Cerro di Pasco. These were accidentally discovered
in 1630, by an Indian shepherd, who was tending his flocks
on a small pampa southeast of the lake of Llauricocha. Hav-
ing wandered one day further from his hut than usual, he
found himself, towards evening, in the vicinity of the Cerro
de Santiestevan. After building a fire to protect him against
the cold, he lay down to sleep. On awaking the following
morning, he discovered that the stone underneath his fire had
melted and turned to silver. The discovery was immediately
made known to his master, who forthwith commenced active
preparations for working the mines. Since that time they
have been constantly worked by a greater or less number of
persons. One class of speculators has been eagerly followed
by another class ; but few of them, however, owing to the
want of thrift and proper management, have amassed any
very considerable wealth.

All the mine laborers are Indians. They consist of two
classes, — one working in the mines the year round, and re-
ceiving regular wages from the proprietors of the mines, —
and the other making only temporary visits to Cerro di Pasco,
when an unusual supply of the metal is procured. In the
mines, also, the laborers are divided into two classes ; the
barreteros, who break the ore, — and the apires, who bring
up the ore from the shaft. From fifty to seventy-five pounds
of metal is the usual load of the apire ; this he carries up
the shaft in an untanned hide, called a carpdeho. When the

* At the commencement of the present century, the annual value of the gold
and silver produced in Peru, was upwards of six millions of dollars. It is now
between three and four millions. But about one thirtieth part of this amount ia
gold. Great quantities of gold and silver are smuggled out of the country, —
the latter in the shape of pldta piiia, or native silver.

138 MINERAL WEALTH. [1839.

mines yield abundantly, the laborers receive a share of the
ore instead of wages ; but at other times, the barretero is
paid six reals per day, and the apire four.

Mining at Cerro di Pasco, as well as at the other mines in
Peru, is not managed with as little difficulty as in other
countries, where improvements in science and the arts are so
quickly employed to diminish labor and expense. One ad-
vantage is possessed at the former place, by which a great
saving is made: the mines are near a large coal bed which
has recently been opened.

Besides the mines at Cerro di Pasco, there are other rich
mining districts in the provinces of Pataz, Huamanchuco,
Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. The mines of Cerro de San
Fernando, in Hualgayoc, were discovered in 1771, and there
are now more than fourteen hundred bocam'mas ; the veins
of metal intersect each other in every direction ; they are
easily worked, and are very productive. The mines of Huan-
tajaya*, on the coast near Iquiqua, were at one time consid-
ered quite valuable, as they yielded, annually, about fifty-two
thousand pounds of silver. The metalobtained was nearly
pure, but it was soon exhausted.* In southern Peru, there
are some rich mines, among which are those of San Antonio
de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, Chupioos,
and Salcedo.

Gold is obtained in Tarma, from the mines of Pataz and
Huilies, and in the washings on the banks of the upper Ama-
zon. At Huancavelica there is one of the richest quicksilver
mines in the world. Between 1570 and 1800, they yielded
537,000 quintals of the metal, and the annual product is now
estimated at 18,000 quintals. Most of it is used for the pur-
poses of amalgamation, at the silver mines.

Besides the precious metals, Peru produces iron, copper,
tin, coal, and saltpetre.

(7.) Agriculture has never been in a prosperous state in
Peru, and it is now languishing more than ever. None of

* Two masses of native silver were found at Huantajaya, — one weighing 225
pounds, and the other 890.

1839.] AGRICULTURE. 139

the inhabitants appear fond of moiling in the earth, and, in
most cases, where the maize fields or gardens, exhibit more
than ordinary luxuriance of vegetation, it must be attributed
to the kindness of Nature, rather than to the industry of man.
The implements of husbandry are rude enough. The plough
is- slightly made, has but one handle, and is constructed of
wood, without a mould-board. The ploughshare is a thick
iron blade, or piece of hard iron-wood, tied, when in use, to
the point of the plough, by a strip of leather. There are no
harrows ; but large, clumsy rakes, are used in place of them ;
and, sometimes, a green bough with heavy stones laid upon
it, is dragged over the sown ground, in the same manner as
in Chili. Cane plantations are ploughed and cross-ploughed
eight or ten times, and the earth is then broken down with
the heel of a short handled hoe. The Indians use, for the
same purpose, a flat round stone, with a long handle inserted
in a hole perforated through the centre.

Instead of the scythe, the sickle is used for cutting grass
and grain ; and among the large planters, two or three per-
sons are kept constantly employed in cutting lucern, or alfalfa,
for the cattle and working oxen which are confined at night
in pens, or corrals. Potato grounds are turned up with long
narrow spades. The same instrument is used for preparing
the soil on the hillsides, for the reception of maize. The seed
is planted in holes made by a sharp-pointed stick.

The fields and gardens in Peru are principally inclosed
within tapias, or mud fences, and hedges of maguey and the
Indian fig. Considerable attention is paid to irrigation, with-
out which a great portion of the land now yielding abun-
dantly, would be wholly unproductive. Manure, however,
is not deemed of much consequence. Quantities of guano
are brought every year from the adjacent islands in the Paci-
fic, but this is applied rather to horticultural, than to general
agricultural purposes.

Cotton, sugar cane, maize, and camotes, or sweet potatoes,
are the principal products along the coast. The sweet pota-
toes are of two kinds, — the yellow and the violet ; they do

140 SUGAR AND MAIZE. [1839

not grow beyond the height of 3500 feet above the level of
the sea. Cotton and maize are grown in almost every part of
the country. The former ranks next to the Sea Island and
Egyptian,in the English market, and, except in the province
of Fiura, is all short-stapled. Maize has formed, from time
immemorial, the chief farinaceous food of the Peruvians.

i re are three sorts of this grain: the mdis morocho has
ill bright yellow or reddish brown kernels ; the mdis ama-
.- . llo is large, shaped like a heart, solid and opaque ; and the
third species, the mdis amarillo de changay, resembles the
second variety, but is a square-shaped grain, semi-transparent,
and having an elongated head. The maize stalks are from
eight to nine feet high and bear very large ears.

The sugar plantations lie on the sea-coast or along the
banks of rivers, below the altitude of 4500 feet above the sea
level, on the western declivity of the Andes, and extending as
high as 6000 feet on the eastern declivity. In former times,
the ereole, or West India cane, was the species most culti-
vated ; but, latterly, the Otaheitan cane has been introduced,
and the product is both more abundant in quantity, and much
better in quality. The sugar mills are very rude structures.
In the valley of Iiuanueo, which contains the largest and
finest plantations, the cane is passed through wooden presses
with brass rollers. These clumsy machines are called Lrapi-
ches or igenios ; they are mostly worked by oxen or mules;
though, upon the largest plantations, water power is some-
times employed, and steam-engines have recently, in a few
instances, been put up. A portion of the expressed cane juice
is distilled into rum, or used for making a liquor called gu&~
rapo ; the remainder is boiled down into sirup, or simmered
till it forms cakes (chanedcas) of brown sugar. From the
latter, loaves of white sugar are made, by purification, which
usually weigh about two arrobas* The Peruvian sugar
exceeds the Havana in sweetness, but its color is not so pure,
nor is its grain as fine.

* The arroba'm Spanish America, as in old Spain, contains twenty-five pounds
avoirdupois.

1839.] YUCCA AND OTHER VEGETABLES. 141

Maize is likewise produced abundantly in the fertile moun-
tain valleys, on the warm slopes *of the Andes, and in the
elevated Sierra. Wheat and other European cerealia are
little cultivated, though they succeed admirably in the high
lying sections of the country. Potatoes do not thrive very
well near the coast, where both the climate and soil are un-
favorable to their growth ; but on the high ridges and in the
elevated valleys, from seven to ten thousand feet above the
level of the sea, they constitute a profitable and productive
cfop.

A most agreeable and nutritive tuberous vegetable, called
the aracdcha, grows in abundance on the coast. It resem-
bles celery in flavor, and is either boiled or made into a soup.
In favorable districts, two crops are obtained within the year.
The yucca, or jatropha manihot, is another fine vegetable
found almost everywhere below the elevation of 3000 feet.
The stalks of this plant grow to the height of five or six feet,
and are about the size of a finger. The roots, which are the
edible parts, are from one to two feet long, and shaped like
a turnip ; the external skin is tough, but internally they are
pure white. In taste they resemble chestnuts. They are
boiled in water and then laid in hot ashes, when they become
quite mealy. Flour is prepared from them by the Indians,
out of which the finest bread and biscuits are made. The
yucca is propagated by cuttings from the stalk, which are
placed obliquely in the earth. The roots are fit for use in
five or six months.

Nearly all the different kinds of pulse are raised on the
coast, but beans flourish best in the hilly country. Cabbages
and salads of every variety, tomatoes, and peppers, are pro-
duced in all parts of Peru except in the very coldest sec-
tions. Rice is also grown to a considerable extent. Of culi-
nary vegetables there is a generous supply, as well in kind
as in quality, throughout the year. The vine is cultivated
in some quarters to great advantage ; the grapes are exceed-
ingly well-flavored, but the wine made from them is rather
insipid. In the southern coastwise provinces, the olive tree

142 PLANTS OF THE SIERRA. [1839.

is found. Its fruit resembles that of the Spanish olive, though
the oil is by no means as go%d, probably on account of the defec-
tive manner of expressing it. The olives are permitted to
ripen thoroughly on the tree ; they are then gathered, sub-
jected to a slight pressure, dried, and packed in small earthen
jars. They are served at table with pieces of tomato and ajl
(Spanish pepper) laid upon them. Sometimes they are pre-
served in salt water, when they remain plump and green,
instead of becoming shrivelled and black, as in the other pro-
cess. The castor-oil plant grows wild in Peru, and is culti-
vated also on many plantations ; the oil, however, is not
purified, but is used for the street lamps in Lima, and for
greasing machinery. Another oil plant is the pinoncillo tree,
which produces a fruit shaped like a bean, and, when roasted,
having an agreeable flavor.

One of the most nutritious, and one of the most important
articles of food, in the Sierra, is the quinua, or quinoa. Its
leaves, when green, are eaten like spinach ; but the most
valuable parts of the plant are the seeds. These are boiled
in milk or in broth, and are sometimes cooked with cheese
and Spanish pepper. They are highly prized by the Peru-
vians, and most travellers commend their agreeable flavor.
The dried stems of the quinua are also made use of as fuel.
Besides the potato, there are three other tuberous plants cul-
tivated with success in the Sierra. These are the ulluco, the
oca, and the mashua. The ulluco is much smaller than the
potato, and varies in its form, being cither round or oblong,
straight or curved. The skin is thin and of a reddish yellow
color ; the inside is green. When boiled, its flavor is nearly
the same as that of the potato, yet it is much more savory
when cooked as a piquante. In addition to the root, that
part of the plant above the ground furnishes an agreeable,
and wholesome vegetable, something like the bean ; three
crops of this green portion of the ulluco may be gathered in
the same season.*

* The ulluco has been cultivated with success in the gardens of Lh • Luxem-
bourg palace, and is regarded as a very good substitute for the potato.

1839.] jruits. 143

The oca is an oval-shaped root ; the outer skin is a most
delicate red, and inside it is white.* It is watery when cooked,
but has a sweetish taste. The raashua resembles the oca in
this respect, though it is somewhat more insipid ; it is of a
flat pyramidal shape, however, and its lower end terminates
in a fibrous point.

Lucern, or alfalfa, as it is called by the natives, is the
great article used for fodder. From the " sea-beat shore*' of
the Pacific, across the sunny slopes of the tihra calimle, up
the luxuriant valleys and gloomy quebradas of the interior,
to the rocky heights of the Sierra, eleven thousand feet above
the level of the ocean, it is scattered lavishly around. It is
cut from three to five times during the year, and, as may
readily be presumed, furnishes an almost inexhaustible sup-
ply of provender. The hot weather of the coast, in Febru-
ary and March, and the keen frosts of the mountainous dis-
tricts, occasionally dry it up, and the mais/'I/o is then used
in its stead.

The most fastidious epicure would be delighted with the
fruits which ripen in the fine climate, and on the rich soil, of
Peru. Besides the vine and olive, the succulent pomegran-
ate, famed for its " pleasant sweetness," the luscious plantain,
the grateful and nutritious banana, and the juicy guava,*
are found here in profusion. Apples and pears grow but in-
differently ; and cherries, plums, and chestnuts, are likewise
as inferior as they are rare. The absence of these produc-
tions of temperate climes is more than made up, however, by
the extensive groves of oranges, lemons, limes, nectarines,
and granadillas, which occupy the warm mountain valleys
even as high as ten thousand feet above the sea. Peaches
and apricots, too, of the finest and most agreeable flavor, are
abundant, In the months of April and May, excursions to
the durazndles, or apricot-gardens, are all the rage. Melons

* The fruit of the guava is yellow and smooth, and a little larger than a hen's
egg. The pulp is flesh colored, and has a very agreeable aromatic taste. It is
used at the dessert and made into a preserve. The jelly prepared from it is one
of the finest conserves.

144 THE CHIRIMOYA. [1839.

of every variety are raised on the coast, and in the woody
districts.

Of figs there are two kinds, — the higos and the brevas.
The pulp of the former is red, and that of the latter white.
Fig-trees grow wild in every section of the country. No one
thinks of drying the fruit, as the almost perpetual summer
furnishes a constant succession of figs. The mulberry tree
also flourishes without cultivation, but its fruit is so little
esteemed in comparison with others more tempting to the
appetite, that the birds are left to enjoy it with impunity.
Quinces are rare on the coast, but are plentiful in the que-
bradas. Among the other fruits are the patta, resembling
the pear in shape, which dissolves like butter on the tongue,
and has a not unpleasant bitter taste ; the tuna, the product
of different varieties of cactus, which is almost the only indi-
genous fruit in the Sierra ; the pacay, a white, soft and flaky
substance, contained in the seed pods of the prosopis dulcis,
which is extremely sweet; the lucuma, a dry, fibrous, yel-
low-colored fruit, inclosed with its kernel in a gray-brown
husk; the pepino, or Peruvian cucumber, a fruit produced
by a small plant grown in the fields, the pulp of which is
solid, juicy, and highly-flavored ; and the mani, or earth
almond, an oily kernel contained in a shrivelled husk, which
is roasted and crushed, and then eaten with sugar.

Pine-apples are not much cultivated on the coast. They
were formerly brought to Lima, in considerable abundance,
from the Montana de Vitoc; but since the era of steam navi-
gation on the Pacific coast, they have been brought, in much
less time, from Guayaquil, and, consequently, they are gra-
in lly allowed to ripen before being cut. Cocoa palms are
tolerably abundant in the northern provinces, and the date
palm grows excellently well about Yea at the south.

But the just pride and boast of the Peruvian, is the chiri-
moya ; beyond question excelling all other tropical fruits in
the delicacy of its flavor. The tree which produces this rich
fruit is from fifteen to twenty feet high, and has a broad flat
top. Its foliage is of a pale green color. In Lima and its

J839.J PERUVIAN BARK. 145

vicinity, the fruit is small, being scarcely larger than an
orange ; but in Huanuco and other districts, where it is in-
digenous, it attains to the greatest perfection, and often
weighs sixteen pounds and upwards. It is of a roundish
pyramidal or heart-shaped form, and unites with the stem at
its broadest base. Externally it is green, and is covered with
scaly knobs, and black marks resembling network. When
it becomes perfectly ripe, black spots appear on the surface.
The skin is thick and tough, but, underneath this, there is a
juicy, snowy-white fruit, containing a number of seeds, which
is prized above all other delicacies by those who have once
tasted it. Both the fruit and the flowers emit a fine fragrant
odor that fairly intoxicates the senses.

Cedar, ebony, mahogany, and walnut, are the most valua-
ble forest trees. Numerous medicinal plants are obtained in
the country, and the bark of the cinchona lancifolia, so well
known under the name of Peruvian bark, forms an important
article of export. The various species of cinchona grow spon-
taneously in the forests of Peru. The tree resembles the
cherry in appearance, and bears large clusters of red flowers.
Its medical properties were discovered by the natives, and
brought into use by the Jesuits, for which reason it was
originally called Jesuits' bark. It takes its botanical name
from the Countess del Chincon, the wife of a Spanish vice-
roy, who was cured by it. The natives collect the bark from
May till November. The trees are felled close to the roots,
and then cut up. After the sticks have dried three or four
days, the bark is peeled off in broad strips, which are imme-
diately exposed to the heat of the sun. This causes them to
roll up in a cylindrical form, — the folds or coils being some-
times so close that there is no cavity in the centre. The
value of the bark depends mainly on the rapidity with which
it is dried. The drying process being completed, it is packed
in bales, each containing four or five arrobas, and exported
in chests carefully inclosed in skins.*

* It is comparatively but a few years since the French chemists, Messrs. Pel-
letier and Caventou.made the discovery, that the medical properties of Peruvian

7

146 BALSAM OF PERU. [1839.

Balsam of Peru is an important product, chiefly valued for
the benzoic acid it contains, and also employed as a perfume.
It is extracted from the myroxylon peruiferum, sometimes
by incision, and sometimes by evaporating the decoction of
the bark and branches of the tree. The first kind is very
rare, and is exported in cocoa husks, from whence it is called
balsam en coque ; it is of a brown color, of the consistence of
thick turpentine, and has an agreeable smell, but an acrid and
bitter taste. The second kind is called the black balsam, and
is quite common. It is of a deep reddish brown color, and
is much more acrid and bitter, and has a stronger smell, than
the other sort. The balsam of Peru always commands a
high price, and is, therefore, frequently adulterated.

A species of red thorn apple, (the datura sanguined) is
found in the Sierra, from which a powerful narcotic drink,
called tonga, is prepared by the Peruvian Indians. It pro-
duces a heavy stupor, during the continuance of which the
natives who make use of it fancy they can hold communica-
tion with the spirits of their forefathers, and obtain from them
a clew to the rich treasures said to be concealed in their
graves, or hudcas. From this superstitious belief, the thorn-
apple has obtained the name of hudca-cachu, or grave-plant,
among the Indians.

In the Puna there are large patches of ground covered with
the ratanhia shrub [krameria triandria.) This is used by
the Indians for fuel, and for roofing their huts. It is also a
favorite remedy among them, for spitting blood and dysen-
tery. The extract was formerly prepared in Peru, and ex-
ported in large quantities to Europe, but latterly very little
has been shipped.

Warmed by a tropical sun, and blessed with a genial cli-
mate, Peru exhibits a most magnificent flora during the
greater part of the year. Blossoms and flowers constantly

bark depended upon the presence of the valuable alkaloid known in pharmacy
as quinine. It is said that the use of 90 000 ounces of the sulphate of quinine
produced in France in a single year, obviated the necessity of swalhwing at
least 10,000,000 ounces of the bark.

1839.] COMMERCE. 147

alternate with each other. The great and mysterious agents
of decay and reproduction are incessantly at work. If, at
one moment, Nature seems to sicken and die, at the next,
borrowing, as it were, renewed beauty, life and loveliness,
from death itself, she springs forth again, like the Phenix
from its funeral pyre. The fertile oases of the coast country
are liberally sprinkled with tropical flowers, not more rich in
color than agreeable in fragrance ; and even in the Sierra,
amidst rushes, and mosses, and syngenesia, may be seen the
purple gentian, the brown calceolaria, the echino and ananas
cactus. The different varieties of cacti can scarcely be
enumerated ; their Proteiin shapes and divers hues excite the
wonder and admiration of the traveller ; and in many in-
stances, where the vegetation is otherwise scant and sickly,
they clothe the landscape in rare and beautiful apparel-
ling.

(8.) Peru not only carries on her own commerce through
her seaports, but she is the great entrepot of the adjacent
state of Bolivia* The total value of Peruvian and Bolivian
produce shipped through the ports of Peru, in 1837, amounted
to near seven and a half millions of dollars. The principal
articles of export were bark, bullion and copper ore, hides,
seal skins, and vicuna, alpaca, and sheeps' wool. The im-
ports for the same period were also about seven and a half
millions. Two thirds of the imports, and rather more than
that proportion of the exports, belong to Peru alone. For
the past ten years the foreign commerce has increased but
slowly, and in some years has sensibly declined. Great Bri-
tain enjoys by far the better part of the Peruvian trade ; the
United States, in 1847, exported goods only to the amount
of $227,537, and imported from Peru $396,223.

Internal commerce languishes under the numerous disad-
vantages which have long obstructed its successful prosecu-
tion. In the days of the Incas, anterior to the Spanish con-
quest, there were several great roads traversing the country,

* Koliva has but one small seaport- -hat of Cobija, or La Mar.

148 MANUFACTURES. [1S39

which, aside from the bridges constructed of osiers, would
compare favorably with the vias of ancient Rome, that

" Time, and Goth, and Turk, have spared."

In addition to these important and extensive thoroughfares, —
the remains of which, grand and imposing though in ruins,
are still visible, — various passes were cut in the steep pa, rd-
vios, or mountain ridges, of the Andes. But the deplorable
effects of the same want of spirit and energy, that, elsewhere
in Peru, have suffered her morning splendor to be prematurely
dimmed and overshadowed, may be witnessed here. The
roads built by the rude and unlettered aborigines have fallen
to decay under the auspices of their European masters; and
the passes excavated with so much labor and care, have dis-
appeared beneath the debris washed down from the Cordil-
leras. With a few exceptions in the neighborhood of the
large cities, the roads laid out by the Spaniards are mere
bridle tracks for horses or mules, and the gulleys and streams
that cannot be crossed or forded, are passed by means of hang-
ing bridges, in nine cases out of ten a very unsafe mode of
transportation. Quite recently, laudable efforts have been
made for the improvement of the roads, but the want of suit-
able means of communication constitutes the chief drawback
on internal commerce, and is a great obstacle in the way of
social and commercial progress.

But little can be said in commendation of the manufactur-
ing industry of a country whose pedigree dates back so many
hundred years. Lima can boast only of her mint, some
smelting houses, and a glass house lately established. At
Cuzco, cotton, linen, and woolen stuffs, and leather and
parchment, are manufactured, in which considerable trade is
carried on with the neighboring provinces. There are flour-
ishing manufactures of woolens and cottons, and gold and
silver cloths, at Arequipa ; and at Guamanga is made the
fine filigree silver work for which inland Peru is celebrated.
Coarse straw hats, and mats called petdtes, are manufactured
at Huacho, and brought into Lima for sale. In Piura, cord-

1839.] birds. 149

age for packing is prepared from the maguey, and atTarma,
loose cloaks, or ponchos, are made, of great beauty and firm-
ness. In the Sierra, coarser and heavier blankets and pon-
chos are manufactured by the Indians. In the lower districts,
goat skins are made into cordovans ; cow hides into saddle-
bags, and travelling cases for beds and bedding ; and rushes
into mats and carpets.

(9.) The bay of Callao abounds with the finest water-fowl.
Humboldt's penguin, and the common gray penguin, are the
most remarkable. There is another small species, called by
the Peruvians the paxdro nino, or child-bird ; it is easily
tamed, and follows its master like a dog, waddling alone;
after him on its short legs and balancing itself with its winsrs.
Among the other marine birds, are the banded cormorant; the
iris, which changes throughout the whole circle in regular
square spots of the most delicate white and sea-green; and
the spotted gannet, and the inca tern.

Of the land birds, the turkey, or red-headed vulture, is,
perhaps, the most commonly seen on the coast, and in the
interior the black gallinazo takes its place. There are some
beautiful gold-feathered colibri in the country. A small bird
about the size of the starling, of a deep blue color, and with
a short curved bill, is called the horse-protector ; it is ex-
tremely fond of perching on the back of the horse or ass and
catching the flies and insects — a kind of amusement which
both the animal and bird enjoy with equal zest. The
principal singing birds are the crowned fly-king, the red-,
bellied picho, the black chivillo, and the cuculi ; the picho
and chivillo are of the starling species, and the cuculi is a
pigeon.

The most extravagant notions once prevailed respecting
the size and strength of the condor, the king of Peruvian
birds. A full grown condor measures from twelve to thirteen
feet, from the tip of one wing to that of the other, and about
five feet from the point of its beak to the extremity of its
tail. It feeds chiefly on carrion. When hungry it is some-
times extremely fierce, and will seize and carry off lambs

150 WILD ANIMALS. [1839

and the young of the llama and vicuna. It is unable, how-
ever, to sustain a greater weight, when flying, than eight or
ten pounds, and it is absurd to suppose, as has been frequently
stated, that sheep and calves could be carried off by it. The
Indians of the Sierra relate numerous instances of its attack-
ing children, but their stories must be received with a great
deal of allowance. The plumage of the condor is strong and
thick, and forms a very good protection against fire-arms.
It is usually caught by the natives, in traps or by the lasso ;
or killed by the bolas, or by stones thrown from slings.

Among the wild animals are the puma, or American lion,
the ounce, a kind of tiger cat called the uturuncu, the tapir,
and the hucumari, a black bear that inhabits the mountains.
The anas, or skunk, and a singular kind of guinea pig. are
found in the bushes. The red deer, the wild boar, and the
tarzish, or Puna stag, are the favorite objects of the chase.
Armadillos, rock rabbits, chinchillos, and the venddo, a spe-
cies of roe, are also caught in large quantities by the hunters.
Of the amphibia, the iguana, the land agama, and the fresh
water tortoise, are the most numerous. Alligators infest the
streams, but noxious reptiles and insects, though occasionally
found, are not as frequently met with as in many other coun-
tries. Monkeys are abundant in the forests.

Of far greater importance than the other native animals of
Peru, are the llama, or South American camel, the alpaca,
the guanaco, and the vicuna. Both the llama and alpaca
are domesticated, and previously to the Spanish invasion
they were the principal beasts of burden among the Peru-
vians. The young llama is left with its dam for about a
year, after which it is removed and placed with flocks. When
four years old, the males and females are separated ; the lat-
ter being kept for breeding, and the former trained to carry
burdens, principally in the silver mines of North Peru. Tinw-
are usually made to carry about one hundred pounds each, —
as they are only capable of sustaining one hundred and twenty-
five without injury, — and if overloaded they will lie down,
and utterly refuse to rise again till some part of the load is

1839.] LLAMA AND ALPACA. 151

removed. These animals will rapidly and safely ascend, or
descend, the steep mountain sides, where the ass, or mule,
cannot maintain its footing. They cannot well travel more
than three or four leagues during the day, as they will not
graze at night. The Indian drivers, or arrieros, are very
fond of them, and often attach bows of ribbons to their ears,
and hang bells round their necks. The llama is not used for
riding or draught ; the Indian lads sometimes mount them,
but this is very rare. The price of one of these animals,
when full-grown, is from three to four dollars ; but in Cuzco
and Ayacucho, where they most abound, they may be pur-
chased in flocks for one and a half or two dollars per head.
The flesh of the llama is spongy and of a disagreeable flavor.
Its wool is used for making coarse cloths.

The alpaca, or paco, whose wool enters into so many fabrics
now commonly worn, is smaller than the llama, and but lit-
tle larger than the common sheep, which it resembles in form.
Its neck is longer than that of the sheep, and its head is much
better proportioned. The fleece is from four to five inches
long, and is beautifully soft. Its color is commonly white or
black, but it is occasionally speckled. These animals are
kept in flocks, in the elevated pastures, and are driven to the
Indian huts or villages, only at shearing time. The wool is
made into blankets and ponchos, and always commands a
good price for exportation. They are very shy, but equally
obstinate. It is almost impossible to separate one from the
flock ; if the attempt is made, the alpaca will cast itself upon
the ground, and. neither punishment nor entreaty will avail
in the least. If separated from its species when very young,
it may be reared ; otherwise it soon dies, where it cannot
escape to its companions.

The guanaco is the largest of the family to which all theso
animals belong. It measures five feet from the bottom of the
hoof to the top of the head, and resembles the llama very
nearly in form, though its color is different, and its wool is
shorter and coarser. Its neck, back, and thighs, are reddish-
brown, and the under part of the body and breast, and the

152 GUANACO AND VICUNA. [1839.

inner sides of the limbs, are of a dusky white. The face is
of a dark gray color, and the lips of a pure white. The
guanacos live in herds, from five to seven in number. If
taken young they may easily be tamed, but it is with great
difficulty that they are trained to carry burdens.

Still more beautiful than either of the animals of which it
is the co-genera, is the vicuna. In size it is between the
llama and alpaca, but it has a longer and more slender neck
than either. The crown of its head, the upper part of the
neck, and the back and thighs., are of a reddish-yellow color,
possessing so peculiar a hue that it is called by the natives
color de vicuna. The lower part of the neck, and the inner
parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre, and the breast and
belly are white. While the rainy season continues, the
vicuna inhabits the ridges of the Cordillera, but does not
venture up the rocky acclivities, as its hoofs are soft and ten-
der, and better adapted to turfy ground. Like the guanaco,
it lives in herds, consisting of from six to fifteen females and
one male ; the latter is the leader and protector of the herd,
and is as jealous of his companions as the Grand Turk of the
beauties in his harem. Unlike the latter, however, the female
vicunas exhibit the utmost, fidelity and affection to their lord
and master; and if he be wounded, when pursued by the
hunters, they will gather about him in a circle, uttering their
shrill tones of lamentation, and suffer themselves to be cap-
tured rather than desert him. This animal is principally
caught in what the Indians call a chacu; this consists of a
circular inclosure surrounded by stakes connected by ropes
or cords. The vicunas are driven into the chacu through an
opening left for the purpose, and are prevented from leaping
over the ropes by the fluttering of colored rags which the
Indian women hang upon them. Thus secured, the animals
are easily dispatched by the bolas.

The flesh of the vicuna is more tender and better flavored
than that of the llama. After a hunt the meat is divided
among those engaged in it, and the skins aro always set
apart for the church. The price of a skin is four reals

1S39.] DOMESTIC QUADRUPEDS. 153

Fine cloth and hats are made of the wool, which is soft, deli-
cate, and curly. The vicunas can be tamed when young ;
but when old they are intractable and malicious.

Most of the domestic quadrupeds now used by the Peru-
vians are descended from foreign stock. This is the case
with the horse, the mule, the famous black cattle of the
Sierra, the sheep and goats. The sheep were the easiest
acclimated, and have succeeded the best. On the great com-
mons or pastures of the Puna, flocks may be seen containing
many thousands, which are mostly coarse wooled. Few
sheep are raised on the coast, and the markets of Lima and
the seaport towns are mainly supplied with mutton from the
interior. The fecundity of the sheep in Peru is remarkable.
The farmer usually calculates on obtaining one hundred and
fifty lambs from one hundred ewes, at a single yeaning. The
ewes bear twice a year, also, generally in June and De-
cember.

Goats are common in Peru, and the province of Piura is
especially famous for them. Great numbers of pigs are like-
wise fattened for the markets ; when from ten to sixteen
months old, they sell readily at from six to nine dollars per
head, if of a good breed.

The cattle of Peru are, upon an average, as large as the
generality of English, American, or Spanish breeds. The
horses and mules are particularly fine. The former far ex-
cel their Andalusian progenitors in grace and elegance of
form, and in the rapidity and precision of their movements.
The saddle horses trained for the Lima market are practiced
in every art of the manege, and are highly esteemed by all
competent judges. Ordinary horses and mules bring from
forty to fifty dollars ; but the best mules raised in Piura,
which is noted for its excellent breed, will often command
two hundred and fifty dollars each.

(10.) After spending about a month in making the neces-
sary repairs, furnishing their outfits, and taking in stores, the
Exploring Squadron completed its preparations for the pro-
jected western cruise, on the 13th of July. At five o'clock

154 SAILING OF THE SQUADRON. [1839.

in the afternoon of that day, the flag ship of the Expedition
stood out to sea, having the whole squadron in company,
with all canvas spread. The Relief directed her course tow-
ards the Sandwich Islands, under orders to proceed thence
to the United States, by way of the port of Sydney ; but the
other vessels steered nearly due west from Callao.

CHAPTER VII.

(I.) The Paumotu Group. — (2.) Clermont de Tonnerre. Unsuccessful Attempts
to Communicate with the Natives. Other Islands. — (3.) Subsequent Explo-
rations. — (4.) The Lagoons. Geology. — (5.) Various Theories in regard to
the Origin of this Group.— (6.) Productions.— (7.) Birds and Animals. —
(8.) Population. Character. Dress. — (9.) Habitations. Canoes.

(1.) Skirting the Southern Oriental Ocean on the west,
between the tenth degree of southern latitude and the Tropic
of Capricorn, is a group of low coral islands, sixty-five in
number, which, though comparatively little known, form one
of the most striking features of Polynesia, " the region," as
the name imports, " of many islands." Different navigators
visited this group previous to the Expedition under Captain
Wilkes; but their observations and reconnoissances were
directed rather for hydrogra.phical purposes, than with a view
of making valuable contributions to physical geography and
ethnology. There is another reason why the information ob-
tained in regard to these islands has been so limited ; which
is, that the crews of whalers have repeatedly stopped here,
and so grossly maltreated the poor and inoffensive inhabitants,
that it is with great difficulty they can be brought to have
the least intercourse with the whites.

This cluster was formerly designated on maps and charts,
as the Low Archipelago ; but it is now known as the Pau-
motu Group, or Cloud of Islands, — the term applied to it by
the natives themselves, and by the inhabitants of the Society
Islands.

(2.) It was with considerable reluctance that the officers
and men of the Exploring Squadron bade adieu to the glo-
rious climate and fertile soil of Peru; yet the prospect of
visiting the fairy islands towards which they were fast wend-

156 CLERMONT DE TONNERRE. [1839.

ing their way, soon compensated them for the absence of the
oeautiful scenes they had witnessed, and they had not been
out many days, ere they began anxiously to cast their eyes
over the western waters, and to fancy they already felt the

" gentle airs which breathed,
Or seemed to breathe, fresh fragrance from the shore."

On the afternoon of the 13th of August, they caught sight
of the feathery shrubs cresting the surface of Clermont de
Tonnerre, or Minerva Island. — English navigators have given
the latter name to this island, but the former, by which it is
at this time more generally known, was bestowed upon it in
1823, by Captain Duperrey, of the French navy, in honor of
his countryman, Count Clermont de Tonnerre, who fell a vic-
tim to his opposition to the Jacobins, in 1793. On approach-
ing the island, the boats were lowered, and some of the officers
and scientific corps started to reconnoitre. Though obliged
to swim through the strong surf, they succeeded in reaching
the shore, and obtained a number of specimens of shells,
plants, and coral. Several natives were discovered, but. could
not be induced to approach near enough to have any conver-
sation with them. A second attempt to hold communication
with the islanders, which proved equally fruitless, was made
on the 14th instant, by means of one of the crew of the Vin-
cennes, a New Zealander by birth, who spoke the Tahitian
language. It being evident that further efforts, even if suc-
cessful, would most likely lead to collisions with the natives,
the island was surveyed, by stationing the vessels at inter-
vals around it, and measuring base lines by means of guns
fired at each station in quick succession, and noting the lapse
of time between the flash and the report ; and the commander
then issued orders for the squadron to get under way.

From Clermont de Tonnerre, the squadron proceeded to
Serle Island, further to the west and north, whieli was sur-
veyed in like manner. They then continued on their north-
westerly course, and on the. L9th of August made Hennake,
or Honden Island. On the. 23rd instant, they reached the

1839.] OTHER ISLANDS OF THE GROUP. 15?

Disappointment Islands, (Wytoohee and Otooho,) so named
by Commodore Byron, who discovered them in 1765. The
natives of these two islands appeared far more friendly than
those seen at Clermont de Tonnerre ; yet they did not seem
over anxious to cultivate an acquaintance with their visitors ;
they were shy and timid, and manifested great fear lest their
women, whom they had concealed, would be taken from them
by violence. These islands having been surveyed, the squad-
ron bore away for Raraka, one of the principal islands be-
longing to the group.

On the 29th instant, a small island, named King's Island,
after the man at the mast-head, who first saw it, was dis-
covered in latitude 15° 42' 25" S., and longitude 144° 38'
45" W. This is a small island, — being only about four or
five miles in circumference, and averaging one mile in width.
The highest point on the island is not over twenty feet above
the level of the sea. Springs of fresh water were found here ;
cocoa-nuts were abundant ; and the soil appeared to be highly
productive. No natives were seen, but there were indications
that the island had been recently visited by persons engaged
in the pearl-fishery.

Early in the morning of the 30th of August, they came
up with Raraka Island, the inhabitants of which, though few
in number, exhibited every feeling of kindness and friendship.
The influence of the missionaries at the Society Islands has
been extended hither, and a native missionary from Tahiti
was found among them. Every opportunity was afforded to
the commander of the American Expedition and his officers,
to obtain the information they desired ; a few presents dis-
tributed among the natives permanently secured their good
will ; and a couple of sheep given to them by the purser,
Mr. Waldron, elicited the warmest expressions of gratitude.

Leaving Raraka towards sunset on the 31st of August,
the squadron proceeded to Vincennes Island, called by the
natives Kawahe, and from thence to Aratica, or Carlshoff
Island, where they arrived in the morning of the 3rd of Sep-
tember. Hogs and fowls were found on Aratica. There

158 ROUTE TO TAHITI. [1839.

were large quantities of fish seen also in the lagoon. Cocoa-
nuts and bread-fruit likewise appeared to be abundant. A
large supply of very good water was procured by the squad-
ron, from a deep pool near the lagoon ; after obtaining which,
the vessels again got under way, with the intention of mak-
ing King George's Group, to the northeast. This being
found to be impracticable, without great loss of time, the
tender was dispatched to survey the group, with directions
to follow the squadron to Tahiti. Previous to this time, on
the 1st of September, the Porpoise had parted company with
the other vessels ; she coasted along the south side of Ra-
raka Island, and then proceeded to Tahiti, the appointed
place of rendezvous, where she arrived on the 9th instant,
having taken, in her way, the islands of Katiu, or Sacken,
Makima, Aratica, and Nairsa.

The Vincennes and Peacock now bore further westward,
and on the 5th instant made the island of Manhii — the "VVater-
landt of Schouten and Le Maire, so named by the former of
those navigators, in allusion to a large pool of fresh water on
the southwest side of the island. Having surveyed this
island, they proceeded to Ahii Island, still further to the
west, which was found to be uninhabited. The two vessels
then separated ; the Peacock proceeding to Aratua Island,
and thence around the southern side of Nairsa, or Dean's
Island, the largest of the Paumotu Group, and the Vincen-
nes steering directly for Nairsa, and then continuing her
southerly course, by way of Metia Island, to Tahiti.

(3.) All the islands visited by the squadron at this time
were carefully examined and surveyed. Subsequently, in the
winter of 1840—1, the Porpoise, in command of Lieutenant-
Commandant Ringgold, was again dispatched to this quarter,
from the Sandwich Islands. She visited the principal islands
which had been missed on the former occasion ; and while
engaged in surveying, a small party, under Lieutenant John-
son, landed on Aratica Island with boring instruments, in
order to ascertain, if possible, with some precision, the geo-
logical character of this extensive group. But the rainy sea-

1839.] THE LAGOONS. 159

son having already come on, the soil was found to be so
saturated with water, that very little progress could be made
in boring, after attaining a depth of twenty feet, and the
project was abandoned without arriving at any satisfactory
results.

(4.) A remarkable peculiarity of the Paumotu Group, is
the existence of large and deep tunnel-shaped lagoons, con-
taining salt water, in the centre of most of the islands. Some-
times these are entirely isolated from the surrounding ocean,
and, at others, its waves break over the broken ramparts of
coral which appear here and there above the surface of the
water. Such of them as have, their pretty little lakes com-
pletely insulated, present a singularly picturesque appearance
when viewed from the mast-head of a vessel. In the centre
is the lagoon, — " deeply, beautifully blue," — neither disturbed
Dy the tempest whose sullen roar is heard amidst the neigh-
boring breakers, nor ruffled by the tossing surge rolled lazily
in upon the shore by the soft winds of the summer ; imme-
diately around this, is a strip of earth, — in some cases but a
few, and in others several hundred yards, in width, — covered
with a vegetation varying with the character of the island,
and either sparse or luxuriant, according to the nature and
depth of the soil ; and further beyond, extending to the brink
of the ocean, is a belt of white sand glistening like silver in the
perpendicular rays of the tropical sun. Within is the blue
turquoise, looking up to the bright heavens reflected from its
polished surface ; about it, is a gorgeous setting of emeralds ;
and the latter is, in turn, encircled by a rich chasing of
argent.

Most of the islands are of a curvilinear form, and, with the
exception of Metia, which is a coral island uplifted, and sur-
rounded by a bold coralline shelf, rarely exceed twenty or
thirty feet in height. They are composed, at least near the
surface, of corallites, conglomerates, and limestone, above
which are coral debris, decayed vegetable matter, and guano,
with coral blocks occasionally cropping-out. The bottoms
and sides of the lagoons are lined with coral, and the shores,

160 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. [1839.

which are generally shelving, are likewise of the same for-
mation.

(5.) Various theories have been advanced in relation to the
geology of this group. Some have supposed that the islands
were entirely the work of the lithophyte ; but the better opinion
seems to be, that they are the crests of submarine volcanoes,
the ruins and bottoms of whose craters are overgrown with
coral.* Captain Wilkes has based a very pretty theory on
the result of his examinations, which has certainly the merit
of originality, if not of ingenuity. He supposes that the coral
islands of the Pacific originally composed a vast continent,
the several portions of which have been separated from each
other ; and that the borders of the islands, being less compact
in some places than in others, have been torn asunder, the
underlying strata carried off by the influx and efflux of the
sea, and thus undermined, the central portions have caved in
and formed the lagoons.t In support of this view, he lays
great stress upon the facts, that the islands are evidently in
a state of dissolution, produced, in the main, by the constant
abrasion of the sea, and that there are comparatively few liv-
ing polyps to be found. t

But assuming his own premises, and taking his own facts,
although they may tend strongly to show that the islands
could not be the work of zoophytes, they clearly do not prove
the existence of a continent ; on the contrary, the theory
which he advances, appears to be left very much in the situa-
tion of the central portions of the islands, without any under-
lying strata to support it. It requires far less stretch of the
imagination, to suppose these islets to have been thrown up
separately, by volcanic agency, than that a whole continent
was upheaved, with its superincumbent load of corallites.
The position of the Paumotu Group, also, with regard to the
currents of the Pacific, the conical form of the islands, and
the existence of coral, in a living, or decomposing state, all

* Lyell's Geology, Vol. Ill, p. 220, ct seq.

t Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. IV, p. 26'8, ct sea.

$ Narrative ut supra.

1S39.] PRODUCTIONS. 16 1

around them, and in the basins of the lagoons, show, conclu-
sively, that the coralline substances must have been depos-
ited, either by the animals themselves, or by the sea, since
the upheaving of these submarine mountains. If this be so,
why put the fancy to so severe a test, when a much sim-
pler, more probable, and more rational explanation, is at
hand ?

(6.) The productions of these islands are not numerous.
A species of short wiry grass, and low tropical shrubs, cover
many of them, but on others there are trees from fifty to sixty
feet high. Endogenous plants are the most frequently met
with. The cocoa-nut (cocos nucifera), the bread-fruit, and
the pandamis odoratissimus, are the most valuable trees.
On the island of Anaa, the cocoa-nut is exceedingly abundant.
Like the other palms, this tree is tall and straight, and from
thirty to sixty feet in height. It has leaves only at the top,
under which the nuts hang in bunches. Fresh blossoms ap-
pear every four or five weeks, and there are generally ripe
fruit, and newly opened flowers, on the tree at the same time.
One tree will sometimes produce a hundred nuts within the
year. There are few trees which furnish more useful pro-
ducts to the islander. Besides the milk and kernel of the
nut, whose nutritive qualities are so well known, the woody
shell of the trunk, when old enough to be tough and durable,
is employed in building huts and canoes ; the leaves are used
for thatching and ceiling houses, and for making baskets and
wicker-work ; and of the fibres of the nut, twine and sennit,
and even strong ropes and cables, are twisted, which last
longer in salt water than those made of hemp.

Pisonias, tournefortias, euphorbias, and apapas, are found
on the islands. Hibiscus tiliacus, bamboo, and wild cane,
are likewise common. Among the principal roots are the
taro, (arum esculentum,) and the sweet potato, — the latter
probably introduced by the Spaniards. The leaves of the
taro resemble those of the water-lily : the roots, which are
large, thick, and oblong, are baked and eaten by the natives,
and a favorite paste, called po'e\ is also made of them. Mel-

162 BIRDS AND ANIMALS. [1839

ons, yams, and tobacco, are more rare than other products,
but they thrive excellently well where they have been intro-
duced.

(7.) Pigs and fowls are the only domesticated birds or
animals, except the sheep recently introduced, on which the
inhabitants rely for food ; and these are alone found upon
those islands to which the influence of the Tahitian mission-
aries has extended. Fish are plentiful in the lagoons, and
are principally caught in pens into which they are driven;
latterly, however, nets woven of cocoa-nut fibres have been
used for the purpose of taking them. Cetaceous animals of
all kinds abound in the vicinity of the islands. Aquatic
birds of almost every species are equally numerous, and some
of the uninhabited islets are perfect rookeries. Among the
sea-fowl, the frigate and the tropic bird, the gannet, and the
sooty tern, are the most important.

Crabs and snakes — to the former of which the natives are
especially partial — exist in great numbers. The pearl oyster
is tolerably abundant in the lagoons, and the fishery promises
at no distant day to be quite valuable. Quantities of biche
de mer, or the sea-slug, are also obtained on the rocks; and
this may, in like manner, ultimately prove an important arti-
cle of commerce.

(8.) It is difficult to form any precise estimate of the pop-
ulation of the Paumotu Group. It can scarcely exceed ten
thousand, and very likely may not be over eight. Full one
half of this number live on the island of Anaa ; one fourth
on Gambier Island; and the remainder are scattered aboui
among the different islands, — some containing from one to
five hundred, and others not exceeding twenty or thirty in-
habitants.

Since the first discovery of these islands, and since the
establishment of the missionaries at Tahiti, the character of the
population, particularly on those members of the group W
of 144° W. longitude, has changed materially for the better.
The inhabitants of the easternmost islands are now, or were
recently, cannibals ; but on the western islands, there are

1839.] POPULATION. 163

already many native missionaries, and a degree of comfort
and prosperity is witnessed among the people, which com-
pares favorably with the loathsome wretchedness exhibited
further to the east.

In regard to the physical character of the inhabitants, there
is a wide field for speculation. The distinctive features of
the Malay and the aboriginal American, are presented in a
blended form, and now and then some peculiar characteristic
of the Papuan negro is observed, which threatens to overturn
all the carefully-constructed theories of the ethnologist. It
is by no means improbable that these islands were originally
peopled by American aborigines and Asiatics, or by the de-
scendants of those races found intermingled on the other
islands of the Pacific ; and, perhaps, some of the Papuan
stock inhabiting the Admiralty Islands, New Ireland, New
Britain, New Hebrides, etc., may have found their way
hither. Trees of American and Asiatic growth, have been
often carried to this part of the ocean, by the winds and cur-
rents ; and Indians in their canoes, and Japanese in their
junks, who had strayed too far out to sea, have been picked
up by European and American vessels, in the middle of the
Pacific. Junks, boats, or canoes, might easily pass in the
variable winds, without the tropics, from the Asiatic coast
and the neighboring islands, till meeting with the trades,
they would naturally be driven towards the Sandwich or the
Society islands ; and they might also be blown in that direc-
tion, by strong westerly winds prevailing for a long time.*

The dress of the females usually consists of a dirty piece
of tapa, swathed about the form like a petticoat ; but among

* Lyell well remarks in his Principles of Geology, (vol. ii. p. 121,) that if the
whole of mankind with the exception of a single family occupying either of the
two great continents, or Australia, or even one of the coral islets of the Pacific,
were cut off, " we should expect their descendants though they should never
become more enlightened than the South Sea Islanders or Esquimaux, to spread,
in the course of ages, over the whole earth, diffused partly by the tendency of
population to increase beyond the means of subsistence in a limited district,
and partly by the accidental drilling of canoes by tides and currents to distant
shores."

104 costume. [1839

the more intelligent and civilized natives, mantles of delicate
matting, made from the bark of the hibiscus, are worn over
the shoulders, and a pareu, or robe of cotton cloth, is wound
round the body. The maro, or covering for the loins, and a
mat of pandanus leaves, are the principal articles of clothing
for the men. The children are allowed to go entirely naked.
Upon a gala day, however, the Paumotuan costume exhibits
a droll melange, representing, in some feature, that of every
nation on the globe. These holiday dresses consist of articles
obtained by barter from the crews of vessels touching at the
islands, and are in general highly prized.

Among the inhabitants of the eastern islands, whose ex-
treme squalidity and wretchedness so pointedly contradict
the assertion of Locke, that " a person is a thinking, intelli-
gent being," it is customary to bedaub the face with cocoa-
nut oil and ashes. The beauties of these cosmetics are never
so well appreciated by the European or American, as when
going through with the process of salutation. When they
wish to welcome a stranger, they approach him with a purring
noise, like that of a cat, clasp the right arm about his neck,
and rub their noses across his, backward and forward, three
times ; and when the ceremony is ended, it will not surprise
him to find that, in color at least, they are all birds of a
feather. On the other islands a little more refinement is ex-
hibited at the toilet, and cocoa-nut oil and turmeric* are used
to give a bright shining polish, and an orange tint, to the
complexion.

(9.) As great a difference exists among the Paumotuans,
in the mode of constructing their habitations, as in their
dress. On some of the islands, they are mere huts, consist-
ing of four or five poles stuck into the ground at both ends,
with strips of cocoa-nut wood, or bamboos, laid upon them
horizontally, and tied down, over which grass and pandanus
leaves, or mats, are spread : they are from six to eight feet

* The turmeric dye of the East Indies, and of the Pacific islands, is obtained
from the curcuma longa, a very different plant from the blood-root (sanguinaria
tanadensis) of America, to which the name is sometimes applied.

1S39.] HABITATIONS AND CANOES. 105

long, four feet high in the centre, and five feet wide. In the
other parts of the group neat and tasteful houses are con-
structed of stakes of the bread-fruit tree driven into the
ground, — the framework of the walls being composed of bam-
boo or hibiscus rods ; they are thatched with pandanus leaves,
and mats are hung against the sides when the state of the
weather requires it. Some of these framed huts are mere
temporary structures, and may be taken up, and removed
from place to place, like the tents of a nomad.

The canoes of the natives are made of the excavated trunks
of the pisonia and other trees, or of strips of cocoa-nut wood
sewed together over a framework. In navigating from one
island to another, double canoes, which are two single ones
lashed side and side, are mainly used. Across these is laid
a platform, above which is sometimes spread an awning
of plaited cocoa leaves. Moveable masts are inserted, with
vines for stays. The sails are made of matting of the pan-
danus leaf, and the oars and paddles of hibiscus wood. Out-
riggers are also common, especially among the vessels be-
longing to the inhabitants of Anaa, or Chain Island.

CHAPTER VIII.

(1.) View of Tahiti from the Sea.— (2.) Size and Description of the Group.—
(3.) Rivers. Harbors. Principal Towns— (4.) Form of Government. Queen
Pomare.— (5.) Social and Physical Condition of the Inhabitants. — (6.) Dress.
Manners and Customs.— (7.) Trees. Fruits. Vegetable Products.— (8.) Zo-
ology.— (9.) Dwellings.— (10.) Commerce. Manufactures.— (11.) Influence
of the Missionaries.

(1.) Tahiti well deserves the appellation which has been
bestowed upon it, of " the brightest gem of the Pacific."
When its tall pinnacled cliffs and rugged peaks are first
descried, far out at sea, but little promise is afforded of the
luxuriant beauty and magnificence which a nearer view pre-
sents. The object that soonest attracts the attention, is the
fringe of snow-white surf, wreathing itself, as if instinct with
life, about the coral reef that encircles the island. Within
this is a girdle of quiet water, — deep, calm, and placid, —
sheltered from the ocean-storm by the line of breakers, and
rarely disturbed, save by the soft invigorating breezes wafted
from the shore,

■ : where the pale citrons blow,
And golden fruits through dark green foliage glow."

In the centre of the circle is the island itself, — the coast
irregular in outline, and indented with numerous bays, but
having a decidedly pleasing effect ; beyond it, extend a suc-
cession of undulating slopes and pleasant valleys, carpeted
with rich verdure or enamelled with flowers, interspersed
among embowering groves and noble forests, conspicuous in
which, are the leafy canopies overshadowing, like the pana-
che of the Peruvian warrior, the branchless trunks of the
stately cocoa ; and in the midst of these Hesperian gardens,

1839.] VIEW OF TAHITI. 167

rise the lofty mountains of Aorai and Orohena — the former
seven, and the latter nearly nine thousand feet, above the
level of the sea — with their rou^h sides decked with the vines
and parasitic plants, creeping up over the escarped rocks to
their summits, around which hover clouds of white mist, like
guardian angels from the spirit-land.

Contrasting finely with the bright mantle of vegetation
spread over the lower portions of the island, are the little
streams and rivulets coursing down the mountain ravines,
and winding their way, like threads of silver, between thick
banks of foliage preserving ever its perennial bloom, hither
and thither, till they mingle their crystal waters with those
of the dark green sea. The landscape is dotted, too, with
clustering hamlets, composed of the sombre huts of the na-
tives, or the more modern and more tasteful cottages of the
foreign residents. In the harbors there is always more or
less shipping, either men of war, or merchant vessels, visit-
ing the island for purposes of traffic, or to obtain supplies.
Gay flags and streamers float from their mastheads, and
numberless canoes may be seen plying between them and the
shore, reminding the beholder how vast has been the change
since the pennant of the gallant but unfortunate Cook first
appeared in these waters. The flowers are not more bright,
perhaps, — the grove and the forest not more beautiful, — but
the air is no longer filled with scents of slaughter, nor the
sky darkened with the smoke of human sacrifices ; the songs
of David are borne on the evening wind instead of the wild
notes of the savage, and the dark and bloody rites of pagan-
ism have given place to the solemn and impressive worship
of the Christian !

(2.) The group now known as the Society Islands, of
which Tahiti, or Otaheite, as it was formerly called, is the
largest and most important member, was first discovered by
Captain Cook, in 1769. It consists of eight large islands,
and several smaller ones. The names of the principal islands
are, Tahiti and Eimeo, — sometimes distinguished from the
others under the name of the Georgian Group, — Raiatea,

168 DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS. [1839.

Huahine, Tahaii, Borabora, Tubai and Maurua. The first
two, with some small islands, form one cluster, and the others
compose a separate cluster, over one hundred miles to the
northwest ; but all lie betwoen latitude 16° and 18° S., and
longitude 149° and 152° W.

Tahiti, the largest and most populous, is one hundred and
eight miles in circumference, and contains seven thousand
inhabitants, supposed to be not far from one half of the popu-
lation of the whole group. This island rises gradually from
the sea, and in the interior is mountainous ; extensive and
fertile valleys open on every side towards the ocean ; and
from the water's edge to its topmost heights, it is clothed
with an abundant vegetation constantly renewing the fresh-
ness and vigor of its appearance. Eimeo, ten miles west of
Tahiti, is about forty miles in circumference ; it is still more
wild and mountainous, and has an abrupt coast, rising in
some places precipitously to the height of twenty-five hundred
feet; it derives its chief importance from the fact that it is
the central station of the missionaries, where a separate school
for the education of their children, and a printing office — the
latter on a limited scale — have been established.

IJlietea, or Raiatea, one hundred and thirty miles north-
west of Tahiti, is sixty miles in circumference ; it is encircled
by a reef of coral, bordered by numerous small islets, and
has a bold, mountainous, and highly picturesque appearance.
Huahine, fifteen miles east of Raiatea, is nearly as large ;
this, as well as the other islands, partake of the same general
features of those which have been described. All consist of
basalt and other igneous formations. Their rounded sum-
mits, and the character and composition of the soil, clearly
indicate their volcanic origin. Iron is so abundant on some
of the hills that the magnet cannot be used, and the sand on
the sea-coast is more or less impregnated with it. Olivine
and pyroxene are plentifully distributed through the rocks,
and lava everywhere abounds.

(3.) From the small size of these islands,, it could not be
expected that they would contain any considerable rivers or

1839.] RIVERS AND HARBORS. 169

lakes. There are a number of mountain torrents, however,
dignified with the name of rivers, which are swollen to such
an extent during the rainy season that it is really dangerous
to attempt to ford them. The principal of these on the island
of Tahiti, are the Pappino on the north, and the Ooaigarra
on the south side, both rapid streams, but narrow, and usually
only a few feet deep. Tahiti also has a pretty lake, seven-
teen hundred feet above the level of the sea, called Lake
Waiherea ; it is of an oval shape, ninety-six feet deep, half a
mile long, and one third of a mile in width ; and is bordered
with a beautiful fringe of woody plants. The lake has no
visible outlet, but the natives say that if a bread-fruit be
thrown in, it will appear after a while in a spring, whose
waters gush forth from the hill-side, at a distance of nearly
three miles.

The excellence of the harbors of Tahiti and her sister
islands, is well known to navigators. Deeply embayed be-
tween lofty hills, which have a sheer descent to the water,
and often many hundred feet below, or faced by perpendicu-
lar piers of coral, and protected in front from the waves of
the ocean, by the massive breakwaters reared by the same
skilful engineer, they afford ample and perfect security against
both wind and tide. Papieti, on the north side of Tahiti, is
the most capacious and the first in importance. Fronting a
deep recess in the island, is a reef of coral trending away for
several miles to the east, but broken just on the right of the
fiorde, by a stream of fresh water putting in, which, it is said,
always interrupts the labors of the polyp. Tall hills rise on
either side of the recess, and between these and the reef, is
the harbor, or bay, of Papieti. It is about one mile in length,
and half a mile in width. It affords a deep and secure an-
chorage, — large vessels being safely moored within a stone's
throw of the shore, — and is capacious enough to accommodate
a hundred sail.

As you pass through the opening in the reef, and enter the
circular and land-locked harbor, the beautiful little coral
island of Moto-utu starts up on the left, like Aphrodite, from

8

170 papieti. [1839.

the frothy sea, with its cool, verdant groves, and its old,
dilapidated fortress, over which waves the red flag of Tahiti.*
Across the fine sheet of smooth water spreading out before
you, along the middle of the curvature of the hot sandy beach,
lies the town of Papieti, backed by pinnacle-shaped moun-
tains, and half-hidden beneath the dark green foliage of the
bread-fruit, — beneath the round-leaved myrtle, the luxuriant
palm, and the noble cocoa. The white cottages of the foreign
residents, with their thatched roofs and green blinds, and the
light-built and sombre-looking huts, of the natives, are scattered
along the shore, or peep out, here and there, from the thickets
of limes and oranges in which they are imbosomed.

Papieti is the largest town on the island, or in the group.
It is difficult to form any estimate in regard to the popula-
tion. The habits of the Tahitian are extremely migratory ;
his wants are easily and quickly supplied, and a few hours'
work will provide him with a comfortable habitation. When
there are a number of foreign vessels in port, and on other
great occasions, the village is overrun with inhabitants, who
flock thither in crowds, but soon betake themselves again to
other parts of the island. This is the ordinary residence of
the queen and the foreign consuls. It boasts a wharf and a
warehouse, and the harbor is probably the best and safest in
the Pacific ; it is frequently visited by whalers, and is now
second only, in commercial importance, to Honolulu.

Five miles east of Papieti is the town of Matavai, which
has a fine harbor. Vessels pass up to it from Papieti, inside
the reef. It is situated on lower ground ; but its location,
nevertheless, is quite pleasant. Point Venus, on Matavai
Bay, is chiefly celebrated, and, indeed, derives its name,
from the fact, that Captain Cook observed the transit of
Venus over the sun's disk from this place. Papoii and Toa-
noa, also on the northern side of the island, have good harbors.
On the south side is Otapuna, next in size and importance
to Papieti; it is built on a low point of land, and the pearl

* The Tahitian flag consists of two red horizontal stripes, with a white one
between them.

1839.] ESTABLISHMENT OF MISSIONS. 171

fishery of the Paumotu Group centres here. Papara and
Panawea, both of which have convenient harbors, are on the
same side of the island.

Taloo is the principal town and harbor on Eimeo. The
anchorage ground is an inlet three miles in depth, inclosed
between walls of precipitous mountains ; it is deep and spa-
cious, and, though exposed to the western winds, they do not
often blow hard enough to injure shipping. At its head is a
broad flat of alluvion, well adapted for the cultivation of the
sugar-cane. Papoii, also on the northern side of the island,
and Afareaitu on the south side, are safe and excellent har-
bors.

(4.) Europeans became earlier acquainted with the Society
Islands than with any of the other groups in the Pacific ; and
the language of Tahiti was the first Polynesian language re-
duced to writing by the English missionaries. As early as
1797, there were eighteen missionaries settled on the island
of Tahiti ; and, in 1814, there were about fifty adult natives
who had embraced Christianity. Although the number of
converts was so few, a general and visible improvement fol-
lowed the introduction of Christianity ; many useful arts
were introduced ; schools were founded ; the meliorating in-
fluences of the law of kindness and love daily became more
manifest ; and the change was finally marked by the estab-
lishment of comparative order and tranquillity, and the adop-
tion of a form of government, modelled, under the auspices
of the English missionaries, after the British Constitution.

The present constitution was originally framed by the mis-
sionaries in 1823, and was revised in 1826. The form of
government, like that of England, is a limited monarchy.
The crown is hereditary in the male or female line. The
sovereign appoints all the principal officers of state, the gov-
ernors of the different islands, and the chiefs of districts ; and
has an unqualified veto on all legislative enactments, though
a bill which has failed to receive the royal signature may
subsequently be revised and modified. The legislature is
composed of two members from aaoh district, who are trien-

172 QUEEN POMARE. [1839

nially elected ; annual sessions are held for the general pur-
puses of legislation, and extra sessions may at any time be
convened. Each district has a court of its own, and there is
also a general supreme court consisting of seven judges, five
of whom reside at Tahiti, and two at Eimeo. All the So-
ciety Islands, and some of the Paumotu Group, acknowledge
the authority of the sovereign ; but the more remote islands
are little known or civilized, and are not represented in the
national assembly.

Aimata, or Pomare IV, the present queen, is the grand-
daughter of king Pomare I, so well known in the early his-
tory of Tahiti. She is now (1849) about thirty-nine years
of age, is a good-looking, though not a pretty woman, and has
a clear olive complexion, dark intelligent eyes, and black
hair. She is not above the medium height, and is somewhat
inclined to corpulency. The queen has been twice married.
She was divorced from her first husband. Her second is
called Pomare-taui, or " Pomare's-man," equivalent, proba-
bly, to " king-consort," in the more refined courts of Europe.
He is nine years younger than the queen, and is a gay, easy-
humored man, comparing favorably with the other young
men of Tahiti in personal appearance, but rather too much
given to the use of intoxicating drinks. Matrimonial squab-
bles are not wanting, it is said, to disturb the harmony of the
royal menage. When her consort was a mere lad, Pomare
exercised quite a motherly sort of authority over him, and,
if reports be true, frequently applied the rod of correction.
But as soon as he reached man's estate, the tables were
turned ; although she could rate him soundly as ever with
her tongue, she was no match for him in physical strength,
and he repaid the inflictions of his august spouse, in kind, with
something added, too, in the shape of interest. Happily, per-
haps, for the safety of the state, both parties seem to have
been benefited by this reciprocal chastisement, and jog along
together, without seriously disturbing the peace of the island

Both their majesties are fond of state and display. There
are sentinels constantly parading in front of the royal resi-

1839.J POLITICS OF TAHITI. 173

dence, and when the queen attends church, or shows herself
to her loving subjects, she is accompanied by a body-guard,
as an escort, consisting of about one hundred men, com-
manded by officers who can hardly be called martinets in
discipline. The uniform of this corps is a blue coat with
white pantaloons. The former is made after various pat-
terns, and worn in different ways — sometimes being buttoned,
sometimes hooked, and sometimes sewed about the person of
the wearer. The guard have muskets ; but, on Sundays,
they are only allowed to carry their ramrods. When the
queen and her husband issue forth, the royal standards are
borne before them, and the soldiers follow, two by two, with
the rabble at their heels. If an aquatic excursion is the
order of the day, a whaleboat, dignified as the royal barge,
receives the cortege.

Although royalty is so often exhibited in caricature, at
Tahiti, it is probable that the people of this, and the other
islands belonging to the group, are as well-governed, and that
as great a degree of order is observed as in those countries
where there is more real brilliancy and show. Generally
speaking, the statesmen and politicians of the Society Islands
are well-informed, reasonable, and sagacious. They always
appear willing to redress grievances, and anxious to promote
the welfare and prosperity of their fellow-citizens. As in
more enlightened countries, there are two opposing parties,
one of which is headed by the queen and the missionaries,
and the other, by Pabfai, chief judge of the supreme court,
and Hitoti and Taua, two prominent chiefs. The former
are constantly proposing new innovations in laws and cus-
toms, and the latter, though by no means unfriendly to
reform, have resisted, with more or less earnestness, their
adoption. Sometimes the queen and her advisers have
pushed their favorite measures with too great zeal and sever-
ity, and their opponents, by appealing to the national feel-
ing and spirit, or threatening resistance, have achieved a
temporary success ; but the queen usually manages, in one
way or another, eventually to secure everything she wishes.

174 STATE OF SOCIETY. [1839

She rarely fails, also, in maintaining the dignity of her queenly
state, though once in a while, as in the difficulty with France
in 1842-3, obliged to yield to the force of circumstances, or
compelled to humor the caprices of Pomarc-taui, who, at the
dictation of the foreign residents, occasionally interferes in
questions of state, and, for the most part, successfully.

The police regulations, especially on the island of Tahiti,
are excellent, though some might, term them severe. At
eight o'clock in the evening a gun is fired, followed by an-
other at an interval of fifteen minutes, after which all strag-
glers found in the streets are carried to the guard-house by
the patrol. The members of the police, with few exceptions,
are faithful and efficient, and do not leave much cause to
regret the abolition of the ancient custom of taboo*

(5.) In enterprise, industry, and intelligence, this people
are, doubtless, far behind the inhabitants of the Sandwich
Islands ; yet, one who has read the accounts of the old navi-
gators, can hardly fail to be struck with the vast change
effected by the missionaries. The natives of this group,
though indolent by nature, were originally wild and turbu-
lent, when aroused, and fierce and vindictive. Long and
bloody wars desolated the islands ; parental affection, love,
and tenderness, were almost entirely unknown ; woman was
sunk in the lowest state of degradation ; polygamy was
common ; a species of marriage was in vogue, but not es-
teemed sacred ; female virtue was prized as a thing of little
worth ; depravity and licentiousness abounded ; sexual indul-
gences and infanticide were encouraged by a singular insti-
tution called the Arco'i;\ all the finer feelings of humanity
were nearly obliterated, and

"hardened mothers in the grave could lay
Their living habes with no compunctious tear."

* This custom, formerly prevailing throughout Polynesia, hut now nearly done
away, may be regarded as something like a police regulation in a rude and bar-
barous state of society, ami. no douht was highly beneficial, in curbing the pas-
sions, and controlling the lawlessness, of the savages, even though it may some-
times have been the instrument of wrong and oppression.

f The baneful influence of this society once extended over the whole Pacific.

1839.] CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. 175

There was, indeed, little to encourage the missionary in
such a condition of society, and the light of civilization strug-
gled long before it was able to penetrate the Cimmerian dark-
ness which overspread the Pacific like a pall. Bat the Chris-
tian soldier, clad in the robes of righteousness, and brandishing
a weapon from the arsenal of Jehovah, fought and toiled, long
and manfully, till his labors were ultimately crowned with
success ; and, though he may have achieved less than what
he might once have anticipated, the good seed has been
planted, and he can console himself with the hope, that in
God's own time it will yield an abundant harvest.

True enough, there is great room for improvement ; the
influence of the foreign traders, like their interests, has been
adverse to that of the missionaries; outbreaks and disturb-
ances, fomented by them, are sometimes witnessed ; and the
chastity of the female sex has not been proof against the
temptations offered to their vanity by the introduction of
European finery. But these things were to have been ex-
pected, for civilization has its vices as well as its virtues ;
and we need not despair, when we see wise enactments en-
forced, instead of ancient laws and customs, a written con-
stitution adopted, and order steadily rising out of chaos and
confusion. Though the morals described by Cook, within
whose sacred inclosures human sacrifices were offered up, are
still visible, they are pointed out by the natives only as relics
of a by-gone age.

The inhabitants may be said to be constitutionally indolent.
The influence of the climate is decidedly enervating, although,
owing to their small extent, the islands have the temperature
of the ocean, and, on the west, are favored by the prevailing

Its members were not prohibited from marrying, but if they had children, they
were obliged to put them to death. It is computed by the missionaries, that at
least two thirds of the children born were murdered; but though the number
was undoubtedly large, the correctness of this estimate is doubted, simply, perhaps,
for the reason, that it seems too revolting for belief. It is certain, however, that
the fact, that the islands are far less populous now than they were at the period
of their discovery, may be attributed to the prevalence of infanticide, and the
bloody and desolating wars.

176 CHARACTER OP THE PEOPLE. [1839

winds. The heat is not often really oppressive, as there is a
constant succession of light sea and land breezes, but it soon
produces, if one is disposed to yield to its seductions, a soft
dreamy languor and lassitude that cannot easily be resisted.
A considerable variety of character is presented here. Gen-
erally, the people are light-hearted, merry, frank, honest and
well-behaved, kind and affable in disposition. Exceptions
are not uncommon. Some are deceitful and thievish, and
addicted to the use of ardent spirits, though drunkenness
and rioting are not common save when provoked or incited
by the whites. Chastity is not the chief virtue of the female
sex, but licentiousness is not near as prevalent as in former
years.

All are excitable, fond of music, dancing, social enjoyments
and amusements, of which the missionaries, perhaps un-
wisely, have endeavored, in some respects, to deprive them.
Their fondness for music is natural, and they frequently as-
semble in parties to sing in the open air in the evening.
Their voices have a slight nasal twang, but chord unusually
in harmony. They will quickly imitate a new tune, and
readily adapt symphonious parts to it. The native music is
now rarely heard, and its place is supplied by the songs
which they have learned from the sailors, and the familiar
tunes of " God save the King," " Cambridge," and " Old
Hundred."

They are attentive at worship — the elderly people particu-
larly so — and pay due respect to the authority of the law.
Of pride they have not much to boast ; and the highest min-
isters of state, and the officers of the queen's body-guard,
may often be seen swimming out to a vessel newly arrived,
with nothing on but the maro, to solicit the honor of washing
clothes. From the ease of procuring food, clothing, and lodg-
ings, they are as improvident as they are indolent, though
there are many who keep more than one eye on the main
chance. Both men and women arrive at maturity at an
early age ; the latter look older at thirteen than American
females at twenty-three. Their mode of salutation is very

1839.] PERSONAL APPEARANCE LANGUAGE. 177

friendly ; the parties shake hands, as with us, and say " ia
ora na oe!" — " peace be with you !"

Scrofulous complaints, which are attributed to drinking
the water of the rills descending from the mountains, are
quite prevalent. Syphilitic diseases, and elephantiasis, are
also common. Intoxication often produces, or aggravates,
many of the prevailing complaints, and the inhabitants suffer
a great deal for the want of suitable medical attendance.

They are of good stature, tall and well-made. Their com-
plexions are a light olive, or reddish brown. They have
regular, open, and prepossessing features, with a facial angle
as perpendicular as in the European head; full, jet-black,
and brilliant eyes — those of the women "half languor and
half fire;" finely-arched eye-brows; straight or aquiline
noses ; well-formed mouths ; coarse, but not wiry hair, either
black or brown. They are lithe and supple of limb, but not
inclined to exertion. There are few very ugly women ; most
of them are good-looking, and some are really handsome, with
their long dark tresses hanging gracefully over their shoul-
ders, and interwoven with roses and jasmine blossoms.

Tattooing is not practiced as much now as formerly. At-
tempts were made a few years ago to abolish it in Tahiti,
but they were not entirely successful. It is often performed
at the age of eight or ten. A great deal of taste is displayed
in this barbarous custom of deforming the person. The
bodies of those who have been tattooed are sometimes com-
pletely covered over with beautiful figures exhibiting every
variety of curve — with animals, flowers, and the sprigs and
branches of trees.

There is a close analogy between the dialects spoken here
and those observed in other parts of Polynesia. The lan-
guage is similar to the Hawaiian, and many words are pre-
cisely the same, though the two groups are twenty-three
hundred miles apart. Some words resemble the Malay,
some the Indian, and some every language spoken on the
shores of the two great continents from which these islands
were, directly or indirectly, peopled. The inhabitants of the

8*

1?8 dress. [1839.

Sandwich, Marquesas, and Society Islands, communicate
with each other without difficulty, after a few days' practice,
and the Tahitian and New Zealander readily understand
each other.*

A translation of the scriptures into the Tahitian tongue
has been made by the missionaries, and printed at Eimeo.
Other books, too, have been published, and the cause of edu-
cation is progressing, more slowly than might be desired, but
still progressing. The schools are tolerably well attended ;
more pains are taken to instruct the rising generation ; and
a greater degree of interest in their improvement has recently
been manifested.

(6.) So many new fashions and customs have been intro-
duced by Europeans, that it is difficult to say what consti-
tutes the national dress. The queen usually appears in pub-
lic, in a dress of satin or figured silk, made after the European
style, with slippers and gloves of corresponding color, a white
satin hat, open and flattened on the upper rim, and sur-
mounted with ostrich feathers. So fastidious is she, That she
will not appear at church in the afternoon, in the same dress
she wore in the morning ; and it is needless to say that others
follow her example. The king-consort displays himself in a
brilliant crimson uniform, decorated with gold epaulettes, a
sword, and a chapeau ornamented with the plumes of the
ostrich. The princesses wear white frocks, shoes and stock-
ings, and flaring chip, or straw bonnets, which last are all
the rage in Tahiti. The chiefs and higher dignitaries also
appear in the European dress, on all public occasions, though
their coats and trowsers are of all colors and fashions, — the
half worn costume of the sailor generally having the pref-
erence.

The ordinary costume of the natives consists of a kind of
mantle covering the upper part of the person, and reaching
down to the pareu. The latter is about two yards long, is
wound around the waist, and extends just below the knees.
Some of the men have parens made of blue cotton cloth, and

* Cook's Voyages, Vol. I, book i, chap. 8; Moerenhout. Vol. I, p. 3'.).'), et seq.

1839.] customs. 179

red check, or calico shirts, of gaudy colors ; others wear duck
trowsers and sailors' round-jackets, and use the par en. as a
mantle. A full loose dress, resembling a night gown, but-
toned at the wrists, but not confined at the neck or waist, is
worn by the better class of females, but those who are un-
able to indulge in this luxury appear in the pareu alone,
which merely conceals the lower part of the body, and leave;?
the bosom and shoulders bare. Shoes are rarely seen, and
stockings may be classed among the prerogatives of royalty.
Straw hats are worn by both sexes, though it is more com-
mon to go bareheaded ; and black felt hats, some high ami
some low crowned, some with broad and some with narrow
brims, are possessed by a very few, whom their countrymen
esteem as fortune's especial favorites.

Naked Tahitians, with the maro only, are scarcely ever
seen. Clothing of some kind or other is deemed essential, no
matter how odd or fantastical it may be.

Formerly, tapa was the principal article used in the manu-
facture of clothing, but cotton cloths and calicoes are no>v
much more common at Tahiti and Eimeo. The men appear
singular enough in their calico parens, and a stranger coming
among them, ignorant of their manners and customs, would
be very apt to suppose he had introduced himself into one of
the most approved gyneocracies of the modern school of philos-
ophers. On the other islands, the original dress of the nativ
is the most frequently worn.

A love of flowers is characteristic of the Tahitian femal
and her sisters on the other islands of the group, though far
less civilized, are not a whit behind her in this womanly trait.
They are fond of wearing flowers stuck in their hair, and
through the lobes of their ears. Sometimes they decorate
their heads with wreaths of the most fragrant and beautiful
flowers, and they have also an ornament called a hau, which
consists of a rim of braided pandanus leaves, projecting on
either side of the head like a chapeau.

Though the inhabitants of the Society Islands are not over-
much attached to labor, contenting themselves, in the main,

180 PRODUCTIONS. [1839.

with the cultivation of a few bananas, and a small patch of
yams and sweet potatoes, they are always ready for any kind
of amusement. Fishing is one of their chief sports, and every
fine night the romantic scenery of the numerous bays and
inlets is illuminated by the glare of their torches, and the
coral rocks echo back their cheery songs and joyous shouts.
They fish mostly with the spear, in the use of which they
are very expert.

(7.) There are few trees or plants usually found in the
tropics, which are not indigenous to, or have not been accli-
mated in, this group. The soil made by the decomposing
rocks and decayed vegetable matter, is of great fertility, yet
agriculture is in a languishing state ; and there are acres of
the most fruitful ground, to which, were it not for the spon-
taneous growth of its products, the expressive phrase of part
du diable, used in designating the fallow corners of the
ploughed fields of Finisterre, might well be applied. There
is, indeed, no very powerful inducement to labor, where the
means of subsistence are so easily obtained.

On the hills and uplands there are forests of stately trees,
and the mountain sides are variegated with shrubbery, and
richly embroidered with the parasitic plants that grow in
every rift and cranny. Ornamental shrubs and aromatic
plants are common. Yellow, orange, red, and party-colored
acacias, enliven the scene with their gorgeous dyes. The
laughing sunlight rests lovingly on the rich yellow fruit of
the lime and orange, and the soft breezes, of the ocean delight
to linger amid the bright green foliage of the banana, the
broad leaves of the bread-fruit, and the waving tufts of the
cocoa.

Of the apapa and faifai — the latter the more valuable of
the two — the canoes of the natives are made ; and the tarn-
anu and hibiscus of the plains, are used for the same purpose,
and also for making furniture. The mape (inocarpus edulis)
furnishes excellent timber for small vessels, but only a lim-
ited supply can be obtained. The wood of the bread-fruit
tree is used in various ways, in house and ship building.

1839.] fruits. 181

Besides the fruits which have been mentioned — the cocoa,
bread-fruit, orange, lime, banana, yam, and sweet potato—
pine-apples, shaddocks, citrons, plantains, papayas, lemons,
vi-apples, taro, figs, guavas, and cape mulberries, are found
in great abundance. Pumpkins, melons, turnips, onions,
beans and cabbages, would flourish with proper care and til-
lage, but the ground is scarcely ever turned up, except with
an iron-shod stick, and little can be expected from such
husbandry. From the ti-root (dracona terminalis) an infe-
rior spirit, called ava, is made ; this was once drank by all
classes, to excess, but the introduction of foreign spirits has
banished it from use, unless it be among the poorer people.
A native chestnut, the rata, {tuscarpus edulis,) has a sweet
nut, and is an agreeable substitute for the bread-fruit. On
the south side of Tahiti, the grape thrives luxuriantly ; the
coffee shrub has been tried and succeeds well ; tobacco is
grown in small quantities ; and sugar cane, cotton, and in-
digo, may be raised with little effort. The Otaheitan cane
produces four crops, while the common variety, requiring a
better soil, yields only three ; its cultivation is yet in its in-
fancy, but there are a number of fine plantations at Tahiti
and Eimeo, which promise in the future to be highly pro-
ductive.* The tuitui tree, the nut of which is used in tattoo-
ing, is a native of the group ; so is, also, the tacca, from
which arrow-root is prepared.

The pine-apples raised here are excellent, and the oranges
delicious. The latter are sold at fifty cents per hundred ;
they are often prepared so as to keep for a long time, by
selecting them with care, and drying them in the sun, dur-
ing which process the moisture of the rind evaporates, but
the juice of the pulp is not impaired. Lemons are unusually
large, and limes are so abundant that it is quite a traffic to
supply ships with the juice, prepared by fermenting the fruit
with chalk, which is highly valued for its anti-scorbutio
properties. Citrons are plenty, but are hardly equal to those
obtained in the East Indies. The vi-apple resembles the

♦ The cane is often seen growing wild, in tufts, in the interior of Tahiti.

182 GUAVA AND COCOA. [1839.

egg plum, and is the product of a rough tree like the oak.
Of the banana and plantain there are numerous varieties ;
they are sometimes preserved by cutting them in slices, and
exposing them to the heat of the sun, by which they are
dried, and at the same time covered with a rich saccharine
matter.

A species of banana, called fei, or fayee, by the natives, is
found wild on the mountains and highlands. Unlike the other
varieties, which it resembles in shape, its spikes of fruit rise
up from the stalks instead of depending down. Internally,
the fruit is of a bright chrome yellow ; it has no seeds, and
is covered with a rind of a brilliant red tint. In taste it re-
sembles the parsnep. There are two kinds of the taro, one
of which is the denizen of wet, marshy places, and the other
of higher and dryer ground. The guava is wonderfully pro-
lific, and threatens eventually to overrun the islands, if se-
rious attempts are not made to exterminate it, or confine it
in proper limits. It here attains the height of from six to
twelve feet; its fruit is like that of the quince bush in
shape and size, pulpy and rich in flavor like the strawberry,
of a deep crimson color in the interior, and covered with a
yellow skin shaded with a tinge of carmine. So abundant is
this fruit, that the swine are allowed to go at large, in order
that they may feed upon it.

The natives pluck the cocoa when it is still quite green,
and do not wait for

'Th' imbrowning of the fruit, that tells
How rich within the soul of sweetness dwells."

When in this unripe state, the kernel is pulpy and the shell
soft ; it can then be eaten with a spoon, and, if a little
Madeira wine and lime juice be added, it is really excellent.
At this time the nut contains from a pint to a quart of a
slightly acidulous, but fine beverage. The mode of obtain-
ing the cocoas is peculiar. A boy with a long line in his
hand, and his feet fettered by a short rope so that they are
from ten to twelve inches apart, ascends the tree by pressing
his feet against the shaggy trunk, and clasping it with his

1839.] THE BREAD-FRUIT. 183

arms. He vaults up with astonishing rapidity — his body
swinging clear from the tree at every spring — and lowers
down the nuts with the long rope. The cocoas are so pro-
ductive that the nuts are often sold at one dollar per hundred.

Valuable and important as are the productions which have
been described, the bread-fruit, after all, is the vegetable
Corypheus of the Society Islands. The tree grows to the
size of a middling oak, is umbrageous, and has its broad
leaves deeply notched, like those of the fig. The trunk rises
to the height of ten or twelve feet without a branch, and has
a rough light-colored bark. The foliage is a dark green, rich
and glossy. Its fruit is circular or oval, from eight to nine
inches long, and averaging about six inches in diameter ; it
is covered with hexagonal warts, and grows in clusters of
five or six ; at first it is of a pea-green color, subsequently
changing to brown, and, when fully ripe, assuming a yellow-
ish tinge. The pulp is white and soft, partly farinaceous and
partly fibrous, and in its ripe state is yellow and juicy. In-
side of the pulp there is a hard core extending from the stalk
to the crown, about which there are a few imperfect seeds.
The fruit is gathered before it is entirely ripe, for it soon de-
cays ; it continues in season above eight months in the year,
and is so prolific that two or three trees will yield a sufficiency
for the yearly support of one person.*

This delightful esculent is boiled or baked, or roasted under
ground, after the true native fashion. The second rind is
scraped off, and the interior is eaten in the same manner as
bread. It has a pure white, mealy appearance, resembling
potatoes, and an agreeable sweet taste, between that of wheat

* There are, in fact, two species of bread-fruit — the artocarpus integrifolia,
and the artocarpus incisa. The leaves of the former are not sinuated ; it grows
chiefly on the continent of Asia, and is called jaca by the inhabitants ; the fruit
is very large, often exceeding thirty pounds in weight. The latter is the proper
bread-fruit of the South Sea, originally discovered in the Ladrones. Through
the exertions of Captain Bligh,— who had just left Tahiti, while on an errand
of this kind, when the crew of the Bounty mutinied, — and at the expense of
the English government, plants of the bread-fruit were introduced into the West
Indies. It is easily cultivated there, but does not excel the banana.

184 BIRDS AND ANIMALS. [1839.

bread and roasted chestnuts. Sometimes it is beaten up with
cocoa-nut and milk. It is highly nutritive, but must be
eaten new, as it becomes harsh and unpalatable in twenty-
four hours after being cooked. As it is impossible to keep
this fruit in a crude state, it is often buried in pits, when it
ferments, and forms a substance called mahi, that may be
preserved for a long time, and is resorted to out of the bearing
season.

Since the abolition of the custom of taboo, it is usual for
the owner of a private grove, if he wishes to protect it from
strangers, to tie girdles of leaves about the trees. This sig-
nal is always respected, and the most tempting fruits remain
unmolested, without any other guard or protection. The
people of other countries, who boast of their intellectual ad-
vancement, and moral perfectness, might well profit by this
example.

Having such an abundance, and so great a variety, of the
finest and most luscious fruits, the people of these islands aro
bounteously provided for in respect to food. They live prin-
cipally on vegetables ; though pigs, fowls, and fish, are con-
siderably eaten. Bread-fruit, taro, and pig, is the standing
dish. All are fond of poe, particularly the children. They
prepare a delicious hotchpot, of taro, cocoa-nut, and bread-
fruit, called poe-poe, and another, equally good, called poe-
maia, of feis, taro, bread-fruit, and cocoa-nut. They eat no
salt, but, instead thereof, use a sop, or compound, made of
sea- water, cocoa-nut milk, and the nut of the ti ; taro or
bread-fruit is dipped in this, and sucked, before being eaten.

(8.) The albatross, tropic bird, petrel, heron, wild duck,
woodpecker, and turtle dove, are the principal birds found in
the islands. Pigeons and swallows are common, as is, also,
the trichoclossus, a species of parroquet. Horses, asses, cat-
tle, hogs, goats and sheep, have been introduced, and thrive
well. The horses are quite numerous ; they are never shod,
as they are used exclusively for the saddle. The cattle roam
at pleasure through the fine pasture grounds, and the leaves
of the bread-fruit form excellent fodder for them. L

a rge

1S39.] DWELLINGS. 185

numbers of hogs are reared, and they are fast supplanting
the wild ones, belonging to an entirely distinct breed, that
once abounded in the mountainous regions of Tahiti and
Eimeb. Dogs and cats are domesticated ; and rats, mus-
quitoes, and horse-flies, are plenty enough to be regarded as
great pests.

Fish are abundant. The best of them are the albicore,
bonito, ray and shark, all of which are eaten. Fine rock fish
are caught in the small streams, and salmon and eels in the
rivers. As has been stated, fishing is a favorite employment
of the natives. Besides the spear, they use nets made of the
twisted bark of the hibiscus. They are likewise fond of tak-
ing the molluscous crabs and turtles, numbers of which are
obtained on the coral rocks and reefs.

(9.) The queen's residence at Papieti is the most conspic-
uous house there. It is one story in height, and has a
peaked roof of thatch, and a wide piazza extending com-
pletely across the front. The church at the same place is. a
large and convenient edifice ; the rafters and frame work sup-
porting the roof are concealed, in part, by ornamental mat-
ting reaching up ten or fifteen feet from the wall. The resi-
dences of the foreigners are light wooden structures, painted
white, with green blinds and thatched roofs. The " palace,"
and some few other houses, have glazed windows. The raft-
ers are generally left uncovered, on the inner side. Some
dwellings are divided off into separate rooms, by board parti-
tions, though, in general, there is but a single room.

Most of the timber used in house-building, and in making
the heavier articles of furniture, is obtained from the bread-
fruit ; but the tamanu {calophyllum) is sometimes employed
as a substitute. The wood of the former tree is of the color
of mahogany, and is exceedingly durable : it is hewn into
posts, or sawed into boards, as may be required.

The natives, ordinarily, build their habitations, however,
very differently from the more modern style just represented.
They are a single story high, and of an oblong shape, resem-
bling more closely, at a distance, a Dutch hay -stack, than

186 COMMERCE. [1839.

anything beside. They consist of posts or stakes, at the
corners, and at intervals between them, driven firmly into
the ground. The walls are built of bamboo interlaced, or of
strips of hibiscus. "Where there are floors, they are made of
planks from the bread-fruit. There is not often more than
one apartment ; but, occasionally, a separate shed is employed
for cooking. Frequently a part of the hut is railed off, for
the use of a sow and her litter.

Some of the houses, on Tahiti and Eimeo, have neat in-
closed gardens for vegetables and flowers. The queen's
palace is surrounded by a fine lawn well stocked with shade
and fruit trees.

Of furniture there is but little. The principal articles are
a few mats and low wooden stools ; a trough and stone for
preparing po'e ; and a number of cups and eating vessels made
of cocoa-nut shells. A log of wood is used for a pillow, and
a mat for a bed; in the better class of dwellings, they have
pillows stuffed with cotton or aromatic herbs. An old mus-
ket and several fishing spears, extended on rude hooks, and
some bunches of fruit depending from the rafters, are the
customary ornaments witnessed in the native houses.

(10.) Though they make no long voyages, the Society
Islanders are essentially a maritime people. Their commer-
cial resources are limited, however; and most of their trade,
which is carried on exclusively by foreigners, principally
French and English, is with New South Wales, whose ports
are opened to their vessels on the same footing as the English.
They export thither, sugar, cocoa-nut oil, and arrow-root, to
an amount exceeding thirty-live thousand dollars annually,
and receive in return, hardware, calicoes, and other manu-
factured goods. In the course of a year, perhaps one hun-
dred whalers visit the islands to barter, whose trade amounts
to nearly fifty dollars for each vessel. The American prop-
erty annually visiting the group is estimated to be worth at
least five million dollars. About ten thousand dollars' worth
of pearls are annually obtained from the Paumotu Group,
most of which are sent to France.

1839.] VESSELS AND CANOES. 187

Double canoes are the only large vessels belonging to the
natives. Recently, small schooners of one hundred tons bur-
den have been built at Tahiti, under the superintendence of
Americans, which are employed in the trade to New South
Wales. The large timbers of the schooners are made of
mape, and the smaller ones of hibiscus. The native canoes
are of various sizes and shapes, either double or single, and
are decidedly superior to those found elsewhere in the Pacific.
Some of them are seventy feet long and but two feet wide,
with high stems and sterns, ornamented with grotesque
carved work. The war canoes are from forty to sixty feet
long, well-modelled and firmly built, and fancifully ornamented
with carving, and decorated with gay flags and streamers.
The canoes built for trading with vessels anchored in the
harbors, or for fishing on the reefs, are always single, and
rarely hold more than two persons. Mape and hibiscus fur-
nish the principal materials used in the construction of canoes.
The cordage is made of grape-vines, or the fibres of the bread-
fruit. The sails, usually of a half oval shape, are made of
matting of pandanus leaves ; they are very large, and one
would suppose that the canoes might be easily upset in a
squall, but the native sailors are expert and skilful, and, at
such times, they get far out on the outriggers, and thus keep
their frail barks in an upright position, while they dash for-
ward with the utmost velocity.

There is little or no internal traffic. Almost every one
raises what food he needs for himself and family, and the
poorer class of natives manufacture their own clothing, from
that never-failing source of supply, the bread-fruit tree. Ve-
hicles for carrying burdens are not much used, although there
is a fine road, called the Broom Road, extending completely
around Tahiti near the beach, and finely arched with trees,
among them many cocoas, termed the queen's, the fruit of
which is free to strangers and travellers. The mode of car-
rying articles, in general use, is the same with that observed
in the East Indies, and throughout the islands of the Pacific :
— a stout stick, from four to five feet long, is extended hori-

183 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. [1839.

zontally over the shoulder, and a portion of the burden at-
tached to either end.

Sugar, cocoa-nut oil and arrow-root, are the chief articles
of commerce, which require to be manufactured before being
fit for market. Much larger quantities of these might be
produced, were the natives more industrious. The annual
product of sugar, probably the most important of all, is
steadily increasing. Nearly two hundred tons are raised on
the plantations of Tahiti, and half that quantity on those of
Eimeo, in the space of a year. One hundred tons of cocoa-
nut oil were once annually exported, but, in consequence of
some unwise restrictive measures of the government, there is
much less obtained. The oil is extracted in a very simple
manner : — the kernel is chopped up in fine pieces, and placed
in a trough, so inclined, that when the oil is expelled by the
heat of the sun it will trickle down into a reservoir placed
beneath ; it is preserved in pieces of bamboo cut off at the
joints, and is used for lubricating machinery and making
soap, and, when perfumed, is burnt in lamps. The value of
the arrow-root annually prepared, is about five thousand
dollars. As in other countries, the root is washed and beaten
into a pulp, and the fecula separated from the fibrous matter
by elutriation through sieves.

Attempts have been made by the missionaries to introduce
cotton spinning and weaving, at Tahiti, but with little or no
success ; and a carpet factory established at Eimeo, has
failed. Yet the natives are not deficient in mechanical in-
genuity. In former times, skill in the manufacture of tapa
was esteemed an important female accomplishment, and, as
such, highly prized. All the labor in preparing this native
cloth is performed by women, and those who continue to
make it are as proud of their stores, as were our Dutch
grandmothers of their rolls of kersey and heaps of linen.
The tapa is made of the inner fibres of the bark from the
branches of the bread-fruit tree. These fibres are macerated,
and then beaten on a long spring-board, slightly convex, with
a small grooved mallet, under which proeess, while in a moist

1839.] tapa. 189

state, they become interlaced with each other, and assume
the appearance of woven cloth. Bales of it are sometimes
made, two hundred yards long, and four yards in width. Its
color, in an unbleached state, is a darkish brown ; and it is
customary either to bleach it, or to color it with vegetable
dyes. Since the introduction of European cloth, there has
been a great deal less made, especially on Tahiti and Eimeo,
and it is now chiefly worn by females, children, and the
poorer classes

(11.) There is some contrariety of opinion in regard to the
general influence exerted by the missionaries in the Society
Islands. No doubt, the condition of the inhabitants is very
different from what it would naturally have been, had they
remained enveloped in the mists and darkness of heathenish
superstition. — but might it not have been still better ? The
missionaries were unquestionably right in theory, yet they
lacked practical tact. They discouraged the fondness for
flowers which characterized the natives, because it was con-
nected with ancient customs and a dark and cruel faith, in-
stead of teaching the poor benighted pagan to love them bet-
ter, from a higher and nobler impulse — from adoration for
their Creator, whose matchless handiwork is nowhere more
strikingly or beautifully exhibited, than upon the islands of
the Pacific. They endeavored to check, or prohibit altogether,
some of their favorite amusements — among others, those of
singing and dancing — forgetting, meanwhile, that amuse-
ments are far more necessary to an excitable people, though
they may be indolent by nature, than to those who are cold
and phlegmatic in disposition. Though he failed to profit
by it in the end, Louis Philippe understood better the char-
acter of his subjects — of course more refined and enlightened
than the Society Islanders, but, like them, volatile, gay-
hearted, and mercurial in temperament — when he enriched
the collections, and added new beauties, to the noble Jardin
des Plantes, and filled the lofty halls and corridors, the
vaulted chambers and saloons, of Versailles, with all the

190 INFLUENCE OF THE MISSIONARIES. [1839.

glories of France.* True, the one labored to establish a
temporal power on a firm foundation, while the others were
employed on a divine mission ; but the laws of nature, of
man's physical constitution, can never be disregarded with
impunity. As the love of flowers might have been made to
subserve a happy purpose, so might the amusements of the
natives, by rendering them harmless, or substituting others
in their stead, if that were impossible, have produced a hap-
piness, and contentedness of feeling, under the influence of
which they would have been less likely to fall into the vices,
and become victims to the temptations, introduced, or placed
before them, by some of the foreign residents.

The traders and merchants who followed the missionaries,
have undoubtedly done much to counteract their efforts; but
the influence exerted by their own children has been equally
pernicious, and the establishment of a separate school for
them, looks so much like exclusiveness, like an aristocratic
barrier, that its tendency cannot be otherwise than prejudi-
cial. Until quite recently, very little pains have been taken
to instruct the natives in any useful arts, or to present in-
ducements for them to be active and industrious. Had they
been taught some light and easy employments, particularly
the females, and been allowed to indulge their native tastes
and customs, where they were not decidedly immoral, it is
but reasonable to suppose that they would have been a hap-
pier, more virtuous, and better contented people.

* "A toutes les gloires de la France," is the inscription on the portico of tho
palace of Versailles.

CHAPTER IX.

(1.) Arrival of the Squadron at Tahiti. Voyage to the Samoan Group. — (2.)
Geographical Description of the Islands. Geology. Climate. — (3.) Principal
Towns and Harbors. — (4.) Inhabitants. Character and Appearance. Dress.
Manners and Customs. — (5.) Government. State of Society. The Mission-
aries. — (G.) Mode of building Houses. — (7.) Commerce. Canoes of the
Natives.— (8.) Zoology. — (9.) Soil. Productions. — (10.) Movements of the
Squadron. Departure from the Group.

(1.) At sunset on the 10th of September, the Vincennes
anchored in Matavai Bay, where she found the Porpoise, —
the latter having arrived in Papieti Harbor the day previous.
The Peacock arrived on the 12th, aud the Flying Fish on
the 14th instant. Immediately after the arrival of the Squad-
ron, the instruments were landed, and observations made,
on Point Venus, — a convenient and airy house having been
kindly offered for this purpose by Queen Pomare. While
the Americans remained at the island, their intercourse with
the civil authorities, the missionaries, and the natives, was
of the most friendly character ; they experienced the most
hospitable and generous treatment on every hand ; and dur-
ing their stay, a number of grievances complained of by the
American consul, were promptly redressed, through the in-
tervention of the commander of the expedition.

All the harbors of Tahiti and Eimeo were carefully sur-
veyed, and correct charts made, by one or other of the vessels
of the Squadron. On the 20th of September, the Vincennes
put to sea for a short cruise in the Paumotu Group, with
instructions to join the flag ship, at Rose Island, the eastern-
most of the Samoan, or Navigators' Group, between the 1st
and 5th of October. The Vincennes moved to Papieti Harbor
on the 22d of September, and was joined, on the 24th instant,

192 THE SAMOAN GROUP. [1839.

by the other vessels belonging to the Squadron. On the 25th,
she sailed to Eimeo, and on the 29th pursued her course to
the west. Passing Bellinsdiausen's Island on her route,
where she stopped to make some magnetic experiments, she
hove in sight of Rose Island on the 7th of October, two days
later than the appointed time, where she found the Porpoise
awaiting her arrival. The Flying Fish was detained at
Papieti, for repairs, till the 10th of October — the Peacock re-
maining to bear her company — on which day both vessels
sailed for the place of rendezvous.

(2.) The Samoan Group — formerly called Navigators' Is-
lands — is situated between latitude 13° 30' and 14° 30' S.,
and longitude 168° and 173° W. These islands were dis-
covered in 1768, by the distinguished French navigator,
Count de Bougainville, who gave them the name which they
have heretofore usually borne. There are eight of the islands
inhabited, viz. — Manua, Oloosinga, Ofoo, Tutuila, Upolu,
Manono, Apolima, and Savaii — and there are several smaller
and uninhabited islands, among which is Rose Island, a low
circular coral islet, with a lagoon in the centre, nearly inun-
dated in high water, and covered to the very rim with tall and
graceful pisonias. The other small islands resemble this in
general formation and appearance, and are mainly situated
within the shore reefs of the larger islands.

Manua is the first island west of Rose Island. It is about
sixteen miles in circumference, and upwards of twenty-five
hundred feet above the level of the sea. Its shores are high
and bold, — rising, in most places, precipitately, to the height
of three or four hundred feet. Above this the ground swells
gracefully, upward and inward, till it attains its greatest ele-
vation, like a vast dome reared above some mighty citadel.
It is well- wooded, and covered with rich verdure to its sum-
mit. Four miles northwest of Manua is Oloosinga, which
consists of a narrow ledge of rocks, three miles long, rising
abruptly from the water. The only portion of it that is pro-
ductive, is a narrow strip running lengthwise of the island,
and overspread with the mast luxuriant vegetation. Ofoo

1839.] GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 193

lies west of Oloosinga, from which it is separated by a channel
for boats, one quarter of a mile in width. It is of but little
importance, and contains but few inhabitants, most of them
having been cut off during the bloody wars that have more
than decimated the population of the islands.

Fifteen miles west of Ofoo and Oloosinga, from which it is
visible in fine weather, is Tutuila, the most central island,
and one of the most important of the group. It is nearly
fifty miles in circumference ; its shores are precipitous ; and
it has, generally, a broken and rugged appearance, occasioned
by the numerous sharp spurs and ridges that vary its surface,
— though its scenery is highly romantic, and its unevenness
is more than half concealed by the dense forests of cocoas and
bread-fruits, whose thickly-matted foliage, interlaced with
innumerable vines and creepers, covers the island as with a
carpet, which, when disturbed by the summer wind, rises
and falls, in wavy undulations, like the billows of the ocean.
The highest peak on Tutuila is Matafoa, upwards of twenty-
three hundred feet above the ocean. It contains a large pop-
ulation, who are chiefly congregated in the valleys and plains
sloping down to the sea. Lofty and impassable hills separate
the island into two parts, the only communication between
which is by the sea shore, — the one, on the northeast, ex-
ceedingly rough and uneven ; and the other, on the south-
west, lower, more, level, and more easy of cultivation. —
Tutuila was visited by the unfortunate La Perouse, in De-
cember, 1788, and derives something of its importance from
the fact, that M. de Langle, the captain of the Astrolabe,
and the naturalist of the Expedition, with ten other persons,
lost their lives on the island, in a collision with the natives.

Upolu, thirty-six miles west of Tutuila, is seventy miles
in circumference. It is not so lofty, nor so much broken, as
the other islands of the group, and in population, beauty and
fertility, far exceeds either of them. The land rises gradu-
ally, for some distance from the shore, and then breaks into a
succession of mountainous ridges, clothed to the top with
verdure of the richest green. Wide tracts of table land lie

9

194 BEAUTIFUL SCENERY OP UPOLU. [1839

along the coast ; and there are broad valleys between the
ridges, carpeted with the finest tropical flowers, and sprinkled
with clumps and groves, of bread-fruit, pandanus, and cocoa-
nut. The steep hill-sides are fringed with the white foliage
of the candle-nut, with the long waving fronds of arborescent
ferns and the graceful plumes of the mountain palm. The
clustering hamlets of the natives are scattered here and there ;
and the tasteful cottage of the missionary, and the neat
chapel, peep out, once in a while, from the deeply-shaded
bowers that overhang them. The beautiful and the wild,
the pretty and the picturesque, are exhibited in striking
contrast. On one side, there is all the dreamy softness of
an Italian landscape ; on the other, the sublime grandeur of
Alpine scenery. Tiny brooklets, singing ever so many a
joyous lullaby, course down the upper slopes, and anon,
widening into miniature rivers, leap in cascades of milky
foam over precipices seven hundred feet above the level of the
ocean. Wild glades and glens there are, within whose
sylvan recesses the spirit of romance might forever love to
linger, and where

" Gentle gales,
Fanning their odoriferous wings, dispense
Native perfumes, and whisper whence they stole
Their balmy spoils."

Within the sea reef of Upolu, and near its western extrem-
ity, is the island of Manono, but four miles in circumference,
yet containing eleven hundred inhabitants and a missionary
station. Connected with Upolu and Manono by a line of
soundings, is Apolima — in former days the olo (citadel), or
place of refuge, of the inhabitants of Manono in time of war
and danger. This is a small castellated island, the crater of
an extinct volcano, surrounded by perpendicular cliffs almost
five hundred feet high, which are unbroken and inaccessible
save at one point, where there is a slight indentation, forming
a bay, with an entrance large enough to admit the passage
of one small boat at a time, and therefore quite easy to be
defended against a much superior enemy. On the elevated

1839.] STREAMS AND LAKES. 195

tableau there is sufficient depth of soil to support the cocoa,
bread-fruit, and banana ; and taro and yams are cultivated
by the inhabitants, who do not exceed five hundred in
number.

Savaii, the farthest west, and the largest of the group, is
also connected with Apolima by a line of soundings. It is
not as populous or as important as Upolu, and its coast out-
line is much less beautiful. It is over one hundred miles in
circumference, and is protected, on the north and east, from
the violence of the surf, by reefs of coral ; but, on the oppo-
site sides, the breakers dash unchecked against its rocky
bulwarks. Except on the south and west, the shores are low,
and there is a gradual ascent to the centre of the island,
where many abrupt volcanic craters are seen, whose fires
were long since silenced, above which towers a siagle peak,
four thousand five hundred feet high, almost always envel-
oped in clouds, and in a clear day visible at a distance of
fifty or sixty miles.

Mountain streamlets, sometimes forming quite respectable
rivers, frequently intersect the larger islands, with the ex-
ception of Savaii, which has no permanent streams, though
possessing an abundance of copious springs. There are like-
wise numerous lakes and waterfalls, — the latter of which
may one day be serviceable for mills or machinery. On
Upolu there is a pretty lake, called Laiito, occupying the
basin of a crater, twenty-four hundred and fifty feet above
the sea, with nine and a half fathoms of water in its deepest
part, and a subterranean outlet.

Like the Society Islands, the members of this group are
generally surrounded by coral reefs, with occasional channels,
or openings, dividing them, through which vessels may pass,
and appear to be of volcanic origin. The general structure
of the islands is conglomerate, of a drab color, lying in hori-
zontal strata. The mural walls and precipices upon which,
as it were, the upper stratum, or productive soil, rests, are
of basaltic rock. There is an abundance of scoria ; currents
of lava are visible ; and it is also found in large blocks full of

, UllV. j.u 10 uw.. '^""^ '" ""tl v

196 GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE. [1839

vesicles. The rocks of basaltic lava contain augite, olivine,
common feldspar and albite. All the higher hills and moun-
tain peaks are crateriform. The beaches consist of a light-
colored sand, composed of a mixture of coral and shells.
Coral debris is found on the smaller islands, and along the
shores of the larger ones. The soil is principally formed of
decomposed volcanic rocks and vegetable mould.

The climate is mild and agreeable, and the mean temper-
ature about 80°. It is more moist than at Tahiti, and the
vegetation is more thrifty. Nearly one third of the days in a
year are rainy. From April to November, the season is fine,
— the winds being light, and affording merely a pleasant
variety to the long-continued calms. During the remainder
of the year high winds prevail, principally from the south-
ward and eastward. Destructive hurricanes sometimes
occur, and earthquakes are not infrequent. The latter are
not usually violent, but produce a slight wavy motion, like
that of a vessel in an ordinary sea.

(3.) On the northwest side of Manua, there is a small
settlement, and anchorage ground for vessels of light draught,
with a pretty little cove to land in, in pleasant weather.
Near the village are a number of irregularly-shaped stone
walls, the object of the erection of which is not known, but
they are supposed to have been intended for defence.

Pago-pago, on the south side of the island of Tutuila, is
the largest, and in many respects the most important harbor,
in the group. It is deep and land-locked — penetrating so far
into the interior as to cut the island nearly in two, and lined
on both sides by steep inaccessible precipices, from eight
hundred to a thousand feet high. The coast, on either hand
of the entrance, which is about one third of a mile in width,
is bold and rugged. Opposite the opening, at some three
miles distance from the shore, is a coral bank on which the
sea breaks in stormy weal her. Except during a strong
southerly gale, vessels of almost any class may run into the
harbor in safety. If the wind be unfavorable, it requires con-
siderable tacking to get in or out, but the place boasts a white

1839.] PRINCIPAL HARBORS. 197

pilot, who has established himself there, and is always ready
to come off when the proper signal is given. The village of
Pago-pago contains but about forty dwellings, a cou ncil-house,
(fale-tefe), and a neat church. Supplies can be obtained
here in abundance.

On the southern coast of Tutuila, there are, also, two other
small villages, called Faigatua and Leone, belonging to the
" devil's men," as the heathen, or unconverted natives, are styled
by the christian party. There are, likewise, desirable ports,
or bays, on the north side of the island, at which vessels can
procure water and supplies. Among them are Fungasar and
Massacre Bay, — the latter the scene of the murder of M. de
Langle and his party.

Apia, on Upolu, is a safe and spacious harbor, less difficult
of access than Pago-pago. It faces the north, and ordinarily
admits of easy ingress and egress. The bottom is sandy,
and at twenty-five yards distance from the shore, there are
five fathoms of water. As a river empties into the bay
which forms the harbor, fresh water is easily obtained. The
town of Apia is about the same size as Pago-pago, and con-
tains a large fale-tele, and a pretty white stone church, con-
structed under the direction of the missionaries. Twenty
miles west of Apia, is Fasetootai, having a small harbor
within the reef; and between the two places is Sagana, a
neat settlement containing six hundred inhabitants, and
a missionary school. It is situated on a peninsula, and is
surrounded by cultivated grounds, intersected by broad walks
and paths, the fruits and crops growing on which are pro-
tected from the ravages of the swine by a stone wall extend-
ing across the isthmus.

Savaii has numerous inlets, but they are either too shal-
low to float large vessels, or only large enough to admit the
entrance of small Doats. Mataatua Bay, on the north point of
the island, is an exception, however, and affords good anchor-
age except when northwesterly winds prevail. Paluale on
the eastern end of the island, and Felialupo on the north-
western point, are small but pleasantly located villages.

198 INHABITANTS. [183*.).

(4.) Formerly, the population of the Navigator Group was
supposed to be one hundred thousand, but it is now estimated
by the missionaries at only sixty thousand. Infanticide has
never been practiced here, as at the Society Islands ; but se-
vere and bloody wars have been frequent, sometimes whole
districts being depopulated by them. It is not improbable,
therefore, though by no means certain, that the number of
inhabitants is not so large as at the time of the first discovery
of the islands.

In complexion, the Samoan is, perhaps, a shade darker
than the Society Islander, but in their features there is a
strong resemblance. The first is taller and better formed,
and altogether of more commanding presence, than any of
the other Polynesians, except, it may be, the Tongese. Gen-
erally speaking, the inhabitants of the Navigators' Islands
have frank and open, intelligent and pleasing countenances ;
their eyes are black ; their teeth good and white ; and their
hair dark, coarse, and straight, though sometimes curled, or
frizzled. The men are strong and muscular, fierce and war-
like, active and energetic in disposition. There is a wide
difference, however, between the chiefs and the kanakas, or
common people, in regard to personal appearance. The for-
mer are more athletic, better made, and superior in physical
strength and dignity of deportment.*

When young, the Samoan women are tolerably handsome ;
but as they advance in years, they become too stout and cor-
pulent to be called even good-looking. But this change is
not produced, as might be supposed, by hard labor or ill-
usage. On the contrary, woman is here treated with a
respect not usual among the savage islanders ; she enjoys
nearly the same privileges as the man ; the affections are
strongly manifested, and the ties between husband and wife,

* This fact has been remarked almost everywhere in the Pacific, and has led
many travellers and scientific men to suppose, not without reason, thai
Polynesian chiefs belong to a distinct race who reduced the former occupants
of the islands to subji ction Si e Ellis' Polynesian Researches. Vol. I. p. "
acq. ; and Moerenhout. Vol. II. p. 247, et seq.

1839. J THE SAMOAN WOMEN. 199

parent and child, in the main sacredly regarded. All the
hard work, even that of cooking, is performed by the men,
while their wives and daughters are engaged in beating tapa.
or some other light employment. The women are reserved
in their manners, and particularly cautious in their inter-
course with foreigners : though chastity is a rare virtue in
the Pacific, where they have not been corrupted by the
whites, they possess a great deal of that native modesty,
which, like the element of fire, can never change its nature,

" But burns as brightly in a gipsy camp,
As in a palace hall."

Adultery is not common, even among the " devil's men ;"
and wherever the missionary influence has extended, it is
regarded as a high offence, and is severely punished. Polyg-
amy is still practiced to some extent, but it is nearly abol-
ished ; and a great many have been forced to yield to public
opinion on this subject, who, wedded to ancient customs, look
back to the days when that abomination was generally toler-
ated, with regret. The husband may repudiate his wife,
however, if he is so inclined ; but the wife cannot separate
herself from her husband without his consent.

The Samoans are thrifty and industrious, though, as their
wants are so easily supplied, there is little inducement to
labor. They are cunning and inquisitive, yet generally
honest and well-behaved. On public occasions, in the church
or council-house, they are sedate in manner, but they have
kind and social dispositions, and are extremely fond of visit-
ing. They can conduct themselves with great propriety,
whenever it is necessary, for. they are not deficient in self-
respect ; but their hearts are naturally as light as the soft
atmosphere that rests over their verdant hills and lovely
valleys. They are fond of receiving presents, and often lib-
eral in tendering them, in return, though not offonded when
they are declined. Hospitality is one of their chief virtues ;
still they always expect pay for any services they may ren-
der, not so much out of selfishness, as • because they have

*itt

tf«* y \ nceM* 6 **

200 TRAITS AND CHARACTERISTICS. [1839.

always been accustomed to receive gifts, by way of remun-
eration or otherwise, from the whites, ever since the first
discovery of the group. Their minds are susceptible of cul-
tivation, and a thirst for obtaining information pervades all
classes. They are a poetic people, and have numerous
beautiful legends, which they are fond of repeating. They
have some considerable musical talent, too, and the males
have clear and fine voices ; their singing is monotonous, but
correct in harmony.

Pride of character is not wanting among them ; their chiefs
know very well how to maintain their dignity, and, while
thus solicitous on their own account, they hold the memory
and reputation of their ancestors, in great veneration and
esteem. A calm and dignified mien is thought to be the
most fitting at their public assemblages, except where amuse-
ment is the order of the day ; the utmost decorum is pre-
served ; no one stands in the presence of his superior ; and
all conversation is carried on in a whisper. In respect to
talent, they are far above mediocrity, as those will bear wit-
ness who have observed the shrewdness, tact, and ability,
displayed by the speakers at the native councils.

Cleanliness in their personal habits is another characteristic
of this people. The first thing the Samoiin does in the morn-
ing, after he rises from his rude couch, and before going
to his daily occupation, is to bathe thoroughly ; and then he
anoints his body with cocoa-nut oil and turmeric, — both for
the sake of the shining appearance thereby communicated,
which they esteem, an ornament, and, as they allege, to pre-
serve their suppleness and elasticity of limb. The females
bathe daily, and anoint their bodies, as well as the men. All,
of every age and sex, practice frequent bathing, not merely
as a cleanly habit, but as an amusement ; and they have
become so much attached to it, that the missionaries havo
felt constrained to prohibit it altogether on the Sabbath.
Excessive eating, bordering on gluttony, is a common vice,
but they drink sparingly of wine and liquors, unless it be

1839.] the "devil's men." 201

among the inhabitants of the " devil's towns," where greater
latitude is claimed and allowed.

There are, of course, exceptions to these general remarks
in regard to the traits and characteristics of the people of the
Navigator Group. A striking difference is observable be-
tween the towns belonging to the " devil's men," and those
of the other party ; and a similar difference may be remarked
in the conduct of their respective inhabitants. But their
natural dispositions are the same, whether they be christian
or heathen, only the better qualities which all possess, are
more conspicuous in the former than in the latter. The hea-
then are more wild, blood-thirsty, and vindictive than the
christians ; but, though living side by side, there are com-
paratively few broils and contentions between the two par-
ties. The " devil's men" are equally hospitable with their
neighbors, when the fit is on them, but they are sometimes
sullen and surly, though it is said that strangers may travel
through their towns and districts, entirely unarmed, without
beinsr molested. Fondness for ava was once a national fail-
ing, and the heathen continue to drink it to excess ; they are
also great gormands, and frequently have large feasts, at
which they devour numbers of hogs, and quantities of other
eatables, till their literally swinish appetites become com-
pletely satiated. The heathen women are bashful and re-
served to some extent, — more so, indeed, than might be
expected, — yet they lack the remarkable naivete of the
christian damsel.

For some reason or other, also, the people of Savaii differ
slightly in physiognomy, and in their manners and appear-
ance, from the inhabitants of the other islands ; their features
are more regular, and the women more gracefully formed.
Their spears and war-clubs, too, are not exactly of the same
fashion, and they are more neatly made.

A fondness for traffic is common to them all ; they arc
ever ready to exchange their fruit, fowls, and hogs, for tools,
cloth, powder, tobacco, and trinkets, though the christians
care but little for the last two. They are quite shrewd at a

Q#

202 diseases. [1839.

bargain, and the people of Savaii would dc .10 discredit, in
this respect, to the land of wooden nutmegs and cucumber
seeds.

Fevers and syphilitic complaints are very rare on these
islands. The diseases to which the inhabitants are subject,
are generally of a sporadic character. The most prevalent
are dysentery, caries, catarrh, and bronchial disorders. Oph-
thalmia is often produced by the heat of the sun reflected
from the sand. Elephantiasis, — which is here attributed to
eating food without salt, drinking cocoa-nut water, exposure
at night, and want of exercise, — is also quite common.
Children are very liable to an eruptive complaint, called
ilumea, which breaks out on their heads. The only remedy
which the natives had for disease, besides bathing, was sham-
pooing ; but since the missionaries appeared among them,
they have been supplied with proper medicines as far as was
possible, and have received better medical attendance.

It has been well doubted whether any living language
could be properly regarded as the parent stock of the Poly-
nesian.* The language of the Samoan Group is, doubtless,
a branch of the Malay ; but it has so many features analo-
gous to other tongues and dialects, that it would require all
the credulity of Lord Kingsborough to reconcile them. It is
constructed like the Tahitian, though it is smoother, soft it.
more flexible, and not so easily spoken. It is the only Poly-
nesian language in which the sound of s is heard. Notwith-
standing the resemblance, in its construction, to that of the
Society Islands, the inhabitants of that group and theSamoans
cannot understand each other.

The maro was, originally, almost the only article of cloth-
ing worn by the natives ; and it is now the ordinary dress of
the common people, being well adapted for active exercise,
not cumbersome, light, easily made, and easily renewed. It
is constructed of the leaves of the ti, (draccena,) which are
sometimes slit, and thus form a short petticoat. It is worn
about the loins and between the thighs, so as to conceal the

* Crawford's Indian Archipelago Vol. II p. SO, et seq.

1839.] dress. 203

pubes. A dress, called the titi, made of the same materials,
is also worn in the heathen villages, particularly by the fe-
males : it is merely an apron or girdle extending round the
body, and reaching from the loins half way down the thighs
or to the knees. The titi is much cooler than the maro, but
like the latter requires frequent changing, as the leaves soon
wilt and decay. Tapa mantles are worn by the chiefs and
their attendants, whenever they appear in public. Beautiful
shaggy mats made of the fibres of the hibiscus, fastened at
the neck and hanging down to the feet, are worn by the
wives and daughters of chiefs.

Latterly, the missionaries have introduced the siapo from
the Friendly Islands. This garment resembles the Tahitian
pareu, and is either made of cotton cloth, or of ti or pandanus
leaves. They have also brought the tipida, — the ancient
dress of the women in the Society Islands, and like the South
American poncho in shape and form, — into partial use, among
the Samoan women.

Articles of European costume are occasionally seen. Some
of the chiefs are the owners of white striped cotton shirts,
white vests, sailors' blue cloth round jackets and pantaloons,
fur hats and coarse brogans, in which they appear on extraor-
dinary occasions; and their wives and daughters are equally
fortunate in the possession of calico or gingham frocks, waist
ribbons, flaring straw bonnets, and morocco shoes.

Of ornaments but few are worn. After taking her daily
bath, and anointing her person, the Samoan girl sometimes
arranges her hair in ringlets, entwined with flowers ; but
this practice is fast going out of date, as it is now the custom
to crop the hair close in the christian towns, and it is often
filled with fine coral sand, lime, or ashes, to destroy the ver-
min. The missionaries, too, have interdicted the use of
flowers. The native men wear a shell suspended from the
neck by a string, as an amulet. Tattooing is regarded as
the emblem of manhood ; it is performed, at from fourteen to
eighteen years of age, and is very expensive. The males
have their whole bodies, from their breasts to their knees,

204 ORNAMENTS AND OCCUPATIONS. [1839.

covered with the ornaments ; but the females have only a
few lines around their hands,, arms, and legs. The young
women in the heathen villages also paint a spot on each
breast, from the size of a dollar to that of a small plate, of a
reddish brown color.

In the christian towns the hair is shaven close, but among
the heathen it is suffered to grow, and gathered in a knot at
the back of the head, which adds very much to their wild
and ferocious appearance.

Having few wants, the Samoan has few cares. A house,
a taro and yam patch, a visiting canoe, a half dozen pigs,
several bread-fruit and cocoa-nut trees, and a neat, well-form-
ed woman, for a wife, will satisfy the ambition of any man.
But though all these are easily acquired, the converted Sa-
moan is not improvident, though eating, bathing, sleeping, and
dancing, are the chief employments and occupations of his
heathen neighbor. In the christian villages the men assist
in cooking, cultivate and weed their taro and yam patches,
repair their fences, build houses and canoes, and make sennit
The women do the light household work, beat tapa, and
weave mats and other similar articles. The boys and girls
in a family either wait upon their parents, or spend their
time in playing. Both young and old occupy a gnat many
of their leisure hours in reading and study, of whieli they are
very fond; and there are now between ten and twelve thou-
sand persons in the group who can read with great facility.

Fishing and bird-catching are favorite amusements of all
classes; and it is needless to say that a great deal of skill
and expertness is exhibited in their prosecution. Of boxing
and wrestling they were likewise once fond, but these sports
are much less common now. Singing and dancing are not
so much in vogue as formerly, except in the heathen (owns.
The chief dance is called siva ; it is lascivious and ungrace-
ful, and the christian girl cannot easily be induced to exhibit
in it. This dance consists in throwing the Legs, arms, and
bodies, into divers graceless and wanton postures; and is per-
formed at the f ale-teles in the sn towns, by the native

1839.] AMUSEMENTS. 205

girls, for the entertainment of guests and visitors. The men
likewise have their dances, which are not so indecorous, and
which they perform in parties, advancing and retreating,
clapping their hands, and stamping with their feet.

Their principal musical instruments are the drum and flute.
The first is long and narrow, and is made of a part of a tree
hollowed out. The flute is of bamboo, usually about one
inch in diameter and sixteen inches long. They also make
pipes of the bamboo, and have a rude sort of guitar formed of
a loose slat fitted into a piece of board, upon which they beat
with two sticks.

They have a number of games. Among them is that of
lafe, which resembles shuffle board, and is played by the
chiefs only, on a mat, with cocoa-nut shells finely carved and
ornamented. Tuae-fua consists in keeping balls in the air,
like the Chinese jugglers ; and litia, in throwing light spears
of hibiscus rods. Lupe is played by two persons ; the one
strikes the back of his closed fist on a table, and then holds
up, instantly, one or more fingers ; if his opponent fails to
hold up the same fingers immediately, he loses one point, and
there are ten in the game.

In each village there is a f ale-tele, or council house, where
the fonos, or public meetings, are held. In the heathen
towns, also, strangers are entertained in them with feasts and
dances.

When the Samoan salutes a friend, or visitor, he takes his
hand, and rubs the back of it against his own nose.

As in most savage, or unenlightened nations, wives are
obtained by making presents to the parents, usually to the
father. Marriages take place early. Girls are betrothed
without regard to age, and are sad, or taboo, till they become
marriageable. After the betrothal, the parties commence the
preparations for housekeeping ; a house is built, and a supply
of mats and iapas made. Two days previous to the marriage
are taken up with feasts and amusements ; and on the third
day, the bride is produced before the guests, the Jewish cere-
mony customary on such occasions is performed, the mar-

200 customs. [1839.

riage is consummated, and the day ends, among the heathen,
in riotous feasting and dancing.

Parturition takes place without danger, difficulty, or cere-
mony. After delivery, the mother takes the infant to the
nearest spring, bathes it, and returns to her ordinary occupa-
tions, just as if nothing had happened. Names are given to
males and females indiscriminately, previous to the birth.
Children are usually suckled till they are six years old, and
some women have been known to suckle two or three of their
offspring of different ages, at the same time.

They are not very ceremonious in regard to burials, but it
is customary to feast those who are present.

In the preparation of food, their customs are similar to
those which prevail throughout the Pacific islands. Their
stove is the well-known Polynesian one — a hollow in the earth
lined with heated stones, and another layer over the articles
to be cooked, with a thin covering of earth and leaves above.
They have no fixed time for taking their meals, but eat when
they are hungry. Pork, fowls, birds, fish, bread-fruit, cocoa-
nuts, bananas, taro and yams, are their chief articles of food.
Rata, the native chestnut, is also much eaten. The sour
paste, called main, made from the bread-fruit, is used when
the trees are not in a bearing state. Pig, taro and bread-
fruit, are served up for visitors on banana leaves ; and some-
times cooked bread-fruit, or the delicious cocoa-nut pudding
(faiai), is handed round in wooden trays. When eaten, the
bread-fruit is dipped in salt water, or cocoa-nut oil. Their
drinking vessels are made of cocoa-nut shells.

As has been before mentioned, the heathen are exceeding
great gluttons. They eat hogs, biche de mer, echina, holi-
thuria, and wood-maggots, entrails and all, with unusual
gout.

They have a fine beverage in the cocoa-nut milk, which
they heat in shells ; but they are far more attached, espe-
cially the " devil's men," to their stimulating ava. This is
prepared in a most disgusting way. The ava plant, (piper
iiiythistLcum,) is chewed by the women, and then thrown

1839.] GOVERNMENT. 20?

into a large bowl — the saliva of the females, as in the manu-
facture of chica among the Indians of Chili, being supposed
to produce the necessary fermentation; water is then added,
after which the delectable compound is strained through the
leaves of the plant. Being now fit for use, it is guzzled
down by the Samoan toper, in copious draughts, stinted
neither in number nor quantity.

(5.) There is no general sovereign head in these islands,
and the Executive power is claimed, and in most cases really
possessed, by the principal chiefs. There are what may be
termed four different estates — the principal chiefs, the alii, or
minor chiefs, the tula/ales, or landholders, and the common
people. The islands are divided into districts, each of which
has a principal chief, though some are of superior rank to
others, and a distinct government. The fonos, or public
meetings, are attended by the alii and tulafales, who decide
what is to be done. The most influential chiefs generally
carry everything before them. The tulu-fono, or decision
of the council, is always held in respect, and must be obeyed.

Upolu and Savaii, though divided into districts, and Ma-
nono, which, with Apolima, constitutes a district by itself,
are united together in a sort of compact ; that is, on occa-
sions affecting the general welfare, the principal chiefs of the
different districts meet together in council, and act in concert
in carrying their determinations into effect. Tutuila is divid-
ed into several districts, the head chiefs of which frequently
hold similar councils. Manua, Ofoo, and Oloosinga, have
what is called, by way of courtesy, a king, who resides some-
times on one island and sometimes on another ; but he is
little more than a chief of the highest rank, and his authority
is treated, with very little respect.

Few crimes are committed ; and the state of society is
fully as good, and personal rights are as much respected, as
could, reasonably be looked for, considering how short a time
has elapsed since the light of civilization and Christianity first
dawned upon these islands. Among the christians, the ten
commandments constitute their common law ; and any in-

208 STATE OF SOCIETY. [1839.

fringement of them is punished, usually with promptitude,
by expelling the offender from the church and forbidding his
attendance on public worship. Deep disgrace always at-
taches to those who have been thus dealt with. In the
heathen towns, crimes are punished by expulsion from the
particular village or community to which the offending per-
son belongs, by exposure of the body to the heat of the sun,
by flogging, by cutting off the ears, by confiscation of prop-
erty, or by being compelled to eat noxious herbs. A murder
is avenged by the friends and relatives of the deceased, by
putting to death the murderer and his family, if they are
within reach. A compensation, however, is sometimes made,
in property, for a murder ; and there are places of refuge,
such as the tombs of great chiefs, which are deemed sacred,
and those who escape to them are free from molestation.

Numerous divinities are worshipped by the heathen, and
were formerly held in reverence and esteem by all the inhab-
itants of the group. They have one chief, or principal god ;
three war gods ; a god of earthquakes ; a god who supports
the earth ; gods of lightning, wind, and rain ; and a great
number of inferior deities, called aitus. Each chief has his
aitu, or familiar spirit, who adheres to him through life, like
the Demon of the ancient Greek, and whose commands he
is bound to obey. Some of the chiefs, whose vanity and
self-esteem are pretty prominent, believe that after death
they become aitus, and, in turn, exercise the office of spirit-
ual guide and protector. These aitus are adopted arbitrarily,
and, in general, are birds, animals, or reptiles. After their
conversion, the christian chiefs treated them with little cere-
mony ; and it, is said of one, whose aitu was fresh water eels,
that the first thing he did was to kill and ml them.

It is now but about thirty years since the missionaries of
the British Board began their labors in the Samoan Group.
Relying solely upon moral suasion, preaching, in truth, a
gospel of peace, and discarding entirely the use of forcible
means, they have obtained an influence which is felt, and

1839.] THE MISSIONARIES. 209

that beneficially, everywhere throughout the islands.* A
few abandoned white men, in connection with the heathen
chiefs, have endeavored to counteract their efforts ; but they
have never been injured or insulted. The results of their
ministry are before the world.

Old customs, some of which, — the use of flowers, for in-
stance, — might, we think, have been retained without preju-
dice, have been done away, and newer and better ones
introduced. One third of the whole population are professed
christians. The schools established in the different towns
are attended by over twelve thousand pupils, children and
adults. Ordinarily, it is as still and quiet on the Sabbath
as in a New England village. Great attention is paid to
religious duties ; frequent exercises are held during the week ;
and grace before meals, and morning and evening prayers,
are said. There are about a dozen missionaries, who are
assisted by one hundred and fifty native teachers, on the dif-
ferent islands. They have a printing press at Upolu ; and
nearly all the Bible has been translated and printed by them,
and read by the natives.

(6.) The houses of the natives are of an elliptical form, and
from twenty to forty feet in length. They are generally built
amidst groves of bread-fruit trees, which afford their inmates
a shelter from the storm, and a protection against the rays
of the sun. Sometimes they are erected on the bare earth,
and sometimes on flagged terraces of stone raised from two
to four feet above the ground. In the former case, it is
usual to cover the floors with a layer of small stones, in order
to keep them dry. In the centre of one of these houses, there
are several upright posts, varying in number with the size of
the building, from twelve to fifteen feet high, upon which a
ridge pole is laid and firmly secured by lashings of sennit.

* One of the most efficient and successful of the missionaries on the Naviga-
tors' Islands, was the Rev. John Williams, author of " Missionary Enterprises,"
and " The Missionary's Farewell," who fell a victim to the cause in which ha
was so zealously engaged, shortly after the squadron sailed from the group, —
being murdered by the natives of the New Hebrides, whither he had gone to
propagate the gospel.

210 NATIVE HOUSES. [1839.

Rafters, fastened in the same manner, reach from this pole
down to the outer circle of posts, about four feet in height,
upon which are extended long sticks or plates. The rafters
are connected with centre posts, nearly half way down, by a
network of cross beams and braces. The roof is thatched,
beginning at the top and working downwards, and projects
from twelve to eighteen inches, like eaves. Bamboo, hibis-
cus rods, and the small branches of other trees, wattled to-
gether, form the siding.

Great ingenuity is displayed in building their houses,
though in their shape they have probably imitated those of
the Friendly Islanders. The wood of the bread-fruit is prin-
cipally used for all the main timbers and posts. The rafters
are made of hibiscus. All the fastenings are of sennit.
Their f ale-teles, or council houses, are of the same general
fashion, though larger and more firmly built.

The floors of the houses are covered with coarse mats,
and in the better class, finer ones are spread over these, on
all occasions of ceremony. A few rough-hewn stools and
benches are the seats commonly seen ; but in the houses of the
wealthier chiefs, a raised dais extends round the inside of
the outer wall. They sleep on the coarse mats used for car-
peting, with a piece of bamboo, or tamanu wood, supported
on sticks, for a pillow; and sometimes a piece of colored tapa
is hung above their place of repose, to protect them against
the musquitoes. Baskets, mats, and cocoa-nut shells for eat-
ing and drinking, of which they usually have an abundance,
are scattered about in every part of the dwelling, and con-
spicuous among the articles of furniture, is the vessel in
which urn is prepared — the wassail bowl of the Samoiin.
Now and then an old musket may be observed; and in the
houses of the "devil's men" there is always a formidable
array of clubs and spears, made of the iron wood (casuarina,)
and of bows and arrows. At night, a lamp, consisting of a
cocoa shell, filled with the oil of the nut, and having a piece ol
vine stalk for a wick, is kept burning till daylight, near one of
the main centre posts, where the hearth for the lire is situated.

1839.] COMMERCE. 211

(7.) Next to the inhabitants of the Caroline Islands, the
Samoans, or Navigators, are the most skilful sailors and
fishermen in all Polynesia ; and they received their name
from De Bougainville, because of the superior construction of
their canoes, and their surprising dexterity in the water.
Abundant supplies of water and provisions may be obtained by
vessels on these islands, but there are few articles adapted for
foreign commerce ; still they may eventually become of some
importance in this respect, especially as their situation in the
Great Archipelago is so central, and they have such fine har-
bors. Tamanu wood for furniture, the casuarina for its rich
dye, and other trees for their valuable gums, may yet bo
profitable articles of exportation. The inhabitants now have
considerably more cocoa-nut oil and arrow-root, than can be
used by themselves and their ordinary visitors. Tortoise
shell can also be obtained in great plenty at Savaii. In ex-
change for what they are willing to dispose of, they mainly
desire useful articles, — such as cotton cloths, writing paper,
hardware, needles and tools.

Springs, lakes, and streams, abound in the islands, and
machinery might be worked advantageously in many places.
The natives have shown that they did not lack ingenuity, by
their discovery of the uses to which the wood of their forest
and fruit trees might be applied, and the construction of so
many articles of necessity and comfort, with their miserable
adzes and other tools, made of stone, shell, or bone. Since
they have been able to procure iron instruments, they have
executed their work much more neatly and handily. Cocoa-
nut oil is made in the same manner as in the Society Islands,
They likewise prepare a very good article of lampblack from
the candle-nut, by burning large quantities of it in a curiously
constructed oven. This is used in painting their canoes,
idols and drums, and ornamenting their garments with vari-
ous devices.

Tapa is not made as good here as at the Society Islands.
The mallet used is larger, and the board is not springy.
Some of their mats, however, are very beautiful, and are as

212 canoes. [1839.

smooth and soft as nankeen cotton. But few of this quality
are now made, as a single one requires nearly a year's la-
bor. A species of cloth, of which parens, siapos, and tipu-
tas, are made, is manufactured, by the women, of course, of
the inner bark of the Chinese paper mulberry (morns papy-
ri Ifera) ; and the tree is now cultivated for this purpose in
nurseries. The stems, or branches, are cut when small, and
the gum separated from the bark by washing. The bark is
then beaten like tapa. Both the mulberry cloth and tapa
are varnished with the gum obtained from the tuitui tree,
or dyed in fanciful colors with other materials.

The largest canoes of the natives are from thirty to forty
feet long, and will hold twenty or twenty-five persons. Some
are built of a single log, having pieces fastened upon it, to
raise it as high as is desired. Others are formed of several
pieces of bread-fruit planks, rudely dovetailed together, and
scoured with sennit. They are covered in at both ends, —
thus presenting decks forward and aft. The former is the
post of honor, where the chiefs usually sit crosslegged on a
platform, underneath an awning made of pandanus leaves.
For cement, they use pitch manufactured from the gum of
the bread-fruit tree. The paddles are long, narrow, and ele-
gantly shaped ; and they are used with great dexterity.
Double canoes are made by lashing two single ones side by
side. Both are very swift, and are managed with a skill
almost unparalleled. The sail, usually of a half oval shape,
serves the purpose of an outrigger, and is used to windward
or leeward, as may be necessary. On the opposite side a
boom projects, to steady the craft, which is secured to the top
of the mast with guys.

Recently, several small vessels, of from twenty-five to forty
tons burden, have been built by foreigners, to trade between
the different islands, and with the neighboring groups.

(8.) Pigs and fowl in great numbers are found here.
The natives are fond of the former, but they prefer selling to
eating them. There are no native quadrupeds — the hog
having been imported ; and the only mammal observed, is

1S39.] ZOOLOGY AND FRUITS. 213

the bat, which is very destructive to the bread-fruit. Cattle
have been introduced by the missionaries, and have increased
so rapidly that vessels can now be supplied with fresh beef.
There are but few horses in the group ; yet these are highly
prized. There are no venomous reptiles ; but eels, and land
and water snakes, are seen. Turtles are also quite common.
Frigate birds, boobies and noddies, abound. Tern breed
in great numbers in the thickets on the smaller islands.
Sixty or seventy different kinds of pigeons are found, some
of which are held sacred and kept as playthings. The prin-
cipal singing bird is the philomel ; but the woods and groves
are filled with countless warblers, prominent among which
is the poe, that make them vocal with their " wordless
melody."

The most common fish are the mullet and the lou — the
latter much smaller than the other. They are caught in
casting nets, seines, and fishing weirs. Women also catch
them by placing baskets near the holes in the reefs, where
they take shelter. They are likewise speared by torchlight,
and taken in deep water with a hook.

(9.) Being favored with a soil so fertile, and a climate so
propitious, the productions of the Samoan Group are hardly
excelled anywhere within the tropics. The thick tufts of the
cocoa, and the long branching sprays of the tree-fern, proba-
bly cause the vegetation to appear more abundant than it
really is ; but if these were removed, a wilderness of choice
fruits and rich blossoms would be revealed, to please the eye
and gratify the appetite. But a small portion of the land is
under cultivation, and there are thousands of acres unfilled,
where the coffee bush, the sugar cane, and the cotton plant,
would thrive luxuriantly.

The cultivated trees and plants are the bread-fruit, cocoa-
nut, banana, plantain, ti, paper-mulberry, tacca, sugar cane,
ooffee, ava plant, sweet potato, pine apple, melon, papaya,
yam, taro, lemon, sweet orange and lime. The manufacture
of sugar from the cane is yet in its infancy, — the natives
having hitherto been accustomed to use the saccharine matter

214 trees. [1839

resembling molasses, obtained by baking ti-root in an oven
and subjecting it to a heavy pressure. Arrow-root of a su-
perior quality is made in limited quantities from the tacoa.
The yam, which is propagated like the potato — the vines
running up trees, and when they die indicating that the roots
are fit to eat — was formerly cultivated a great deal ; but it
is now giving way, in a measure, to the taro, which is thought
to be preferable by the natives.

Innumerable varieties of medicinal herbs spring up spon-
taneously in the valleys and on the mountain sides. Wild
oranges are so abundant in some sections that the forest-paths
are literally strewn with them. The cerbera, from which
caoutchouc might be made, wild nutmeg, wild ginger, and
the iris, abound. The trees are of great beauty and variety,
and are often hidden beneath dense masses of ferns, convol-
vuli, and other vines — the rich drapery whose web and woof
are supplied by Nature's own hand. They are remarkable
not only for their size, but also for the beauty and fragrance
of their flowers, and the lusciousness of their tempting fruits.
Evergreens are quite numerous. Indeed, there are but two
or three deciduous trees in the group. The new leaves push
out the old ; and buds and blossoms, the young fruit and the
ripe, appear together throughout the year.

Among the trees are the tamanu, hibiscus, pandanus, rata,
pisonia, apapa, amni, or miro, tou (cordia), toi, toa (casua-
rina), candle-nut (aleurites triloba), ohwa, or native banyan,
leafless acacia, bread-fruit and cocoa-nut. The most valu-
able of these for timber, are the tamanu, ainai, tou, toi, toa,
and bread-fruit. The tamanu at tains a vast size, and is
often five feet in diameter. It has a beautiful veiny grain,
and will take a high polish. Canoes, stools, pillows, bowls,
and other articles, are wrought from it with great labor.. It
would be extremely useful in ship building, as it is very
durable, and holds a nail with great tenacity : iron likewise
lasts better in it than in any other wood. — The wood of the
amai is of a close firm texture, and of a dark brown color.
It is but little variegated, but will receive a fine polish. It

IS39.] TREES. 215

is worked without difficulty, and makes beautiful furniture.
lis leaves were formerly used in religious ceremonies, and
embassadors invariably carried a branch of it as an emblem
of authority and of peace, like the vervain of the Roman
fecial is.

The tou is a low umbrageous tree, and is generally planted
near the dwellings of chiefs. It is not so hard as rosewood,
but resembles it in "rain. Rich looking furniture is manu-
factured from it ; and the natives also use it in making
wooden drums, which give a more sonorous and mellow
sound than those made from the wood of other trees. — The
toi is of medium size and height. In the vicinity of tha
heart, the wood is of a blood red color, but the outer parts
are lighter and beautifully waved. It is like satin wood, and
is susceptible of a high polish. — The toa, or iron wood, is a
largo tree, and bears a heavy canopy of graceful foliage. The
wood is exceedingly hard and durable, and of a reddish brown
color. The richly carved clubs and spears of the natives are
made from it; and the missionaries have tried, and proved
it to be valuable, for the sheaves of blocks, and for the cogs
in their su^ar mills and other similar articles. A fine and
rich red dye may also be obtained from the wood of the toa.

Probably the bread-fruit is the most abundant of all the
trees found in this group. Besides the numerous uses to
which it is applied in the Society Islands, a thick cream is
here obtained from it, by puncturing, which hardens when
exposed to the sun, and, after being boiled, is a good substi-
tute for pitch.

The candle-nut tree is plentifully distributed throughout
the mountainous districts, where its white shining leaves
contrast finely with the dark glossy foliage of the banana and
bread-fruit. This tree bears an oily nut of the size of a
walnut, of which domestic candles are made. A number of
the nuts, having their husks stripped off, are strung on a rib
of the cocoa-nut leaf, which is lighted when required for use.
Lampblack is likewise prepared from this nut, as has been
mentioned. A gum, of which a good varnish is made, is

216 MOVEMENTS OF THE SQUADRON. [1839

also obtained from the tree ; and from the inner bark, a juice
is procured, which is used instead of paint oil, and when
mixed with lampblack, or with the dye of the casuarina, be-
comes so permanent that it cannot be washed off, — differing,
in this respect, from the oil of the cocoa-nut, which, when
joined with paint, does not dry.

(10.) Immediately after the arrival of the Squadron in the
Samoiin group, the different islands were divided among the
vessels, for surveys and examinations. An observatory was
established on Tutuila, and the head-quarters of the com-
mander of the Expedition temporarily fixed on that island.
The Peacock and Flying Fish joined the Vincennes at Pago-
pago, on the 18th of October, and were at once ordered to
proceed to Upolu.

While the Squadron remained at these islands, a fono, or
council, was held by the chiefs of Upolu, Manono and Savaii,
at the request of Captain Wilkes, in which rules and regu-
lations were agreed upon and adopted, for the security and
protection of American whalers. A son of the Rev. Mr.
Williams was likewise appointed Consul of the United States,
and recognized as such by the Council. But little depend-
ence, however, is to be placed upon the agreement entered
into at that time by the Samoan chiefs, as they have since
shown, on more than one occasion, an undue readiness to
violate their most solemn pledges. During the stay of the
American Expedition, also, a native was tried by a council
of chiefs, for murdering an American citizen twelve months
previous, and found guilty. He was in the first instance
sentenced to be executed, and preparations were made to
carry the sentence into effect; but at the suggestion of Cap-
tains Wilkes and Hudson, his punishment was commuted to
banishment for life, and he was afterwards conveyed to Wal-
lis Island, on board one of the vessels of the Squadron, in
their subsequent passage to Sydney.

All the islands, with their harbors, having been surveyed,
— with the exception of the south side of Upolu, which was
finished by the Porpoise, during another visit to the group,

1839.] ARRIVAL AT SYDNEY. 217

in September, 1840, — the whole Squadron assembled at
Apia early on the 10th of November. At eleven o'clock in
the forenoon, the signal was made to get under way ; and in
a short time thereafter, all sails were spread to catch the soft
breezes of the Pacific. On the 18th instant, they entered the
Eastern Hemisphere, when they corrected their time, — one
day having been lost in doubling .Cape Horn, as is always
the case. Passing round the Feejee Islands, and between
them and the New Hebrides, they approached the coast of
New Holland on the 29th of November, and at sunset made
the light house on the headland of Port Jackson bay. Hav-
ing a fair wind, though the night was dark, they ran up to
Sydney, seven miles from the mouth of the inlet, without a
pilot. On the following morning, the people of the town, and
the garrison in particular, were very much chagrined, when
they caught sight of the stripes and stars waving over the
flotilla which had entered their harbor with so little ceremony,
unheralded and unannounced.

10

CHAPTER X.

(1.) Australia. Discovery. Chorography. — (2.) Harbors. Lakes. Rivera. —
(3.) Soil. Minerals. Climate. — (4.) Vegetable Productions. Fruits and
Trees. — (5.) Birds. Animals. Fish. — (6.) Aborigines. Appearance and
Character. — (7.) Native Habitations. Dress. Customs and Superstitions. —
(8.) Different Colonies and their Establishment. Government. — (9.) Life and
Manners among the Colonists. — (10.) The Convicts. —(11.) Van Diemen's
Land. — (12.) Sydney. Other Towns. — (13.) Commerce and Manufactures.

(1.) New Holland — now more properly called the Con-
tinent of Australia* — was facetiously termed by Sydney
Smith, " the fifth or pickpocket quarter of the globe." Not-
withstanding there is full as much truth as wit, in this des-
ignation of the late reverend canon of St. Paul's, the great
extent of this portion of the world, the peculiarities of its soil
and climate, the riches of its vegetable and botanical king-
dom, -and the character of the colonial establishments founded
here by Great Britain, surround it, as it were, with a deep
and absorbing interest.

The continent lies between latitude 10° 39' and 39° 11'
S., and longitude 113° 5' and 153° 16' E. Its coast line is
estimated at 7750 miles, within which is an area of three
million square miles. Its greatest length, from east to west,
between Sandy Cape and DirkHartog's point, is twenty-four
hundred miles ; and its greatest width, from north to south,
is a little short of two thousand miles.

* Avstralia should not be confounded with Australasia. The former name
(Terra Austi-alis) was originally given by the early navigators lo wb.it
supposed to be the vast Antarctic Continent of which the diffi rent isl inds. and
points of land, tlicv had discovered in the southern oce in form ! parts; but it
is now applied to the continent heretofore known as N< w Holland — whereas
Australasia embraces Australia Tasmania, or Van Diem-n's Land New Cale-
donia. New Hebrides Queen Charlotte's Islands Solomon's Archipelago, the
Louisiad.es, New Britain, New Guinea, und New Zealand.

1839.] DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA. 219

As early as 1526, a few accidental discoveries on the Aus-
tralian coast were made by the Spaniards ; but the first
accurate information was obtained by the Dutch yacht
Dnyf hen, in 1606, which, while engaged in exploring the coast
of New Guinea, discovered that portion of Australia extending
south of Endeavor Straits, and gave it the name of New
Holland. A few months later, Louis de Torres, a Spanish
navigator, passed through the straits which bear his name, and
made the northeastern point of Australia, an account of which
was given to the world on his return. From 1616 to 1628,
various discoveries, of greater or less extent, were made by
the Dutch navigators, Hartog, Zeachem, Dewitt, and Car-
penter ; in 1627, Van Nuyt sailed along the southern coast
of Australia, from Cape Leeuwin to Spencer's Gulf, to which
his name has been given ; and between the years 1642 and
1644, Tasman completed the discovery of a great part of the
Australian coast line, and the island of Van Diemen's Land.

The result of these discoveries by the Dutch was, that
about one half of the coast outline of the continent was sur-
veyed ; but the information which they had obtained was
deemed of little consequence, and attracted so little attention,
that it was soon more than half forgotten. At length, the
English navigators entered with zeal and spirit upon the ca-
reer of discovery. Between 1684 and 1690, Dampier ex-
plored a part of the west and northwest coasts, and subse-
quently extended his surveys to the neighboring islands.
From 1763 to 1766, Wallis and Carteret were engaged on
a similar errand, in the same quarter of the world. But it
was reserved for the talented, and indefatigable Cook, to ac-
complish more, in a far briefer period, than the united labors
of all those who had preceded him : he surveyed, in 1770,
the whole eastern coast of Australia, and was the first to
make known the important fact, that this terra incognita
was a vast island-continent.

Shortly after the return of Cook, a number of expeditions
were set on foot for exploring the newly discovered country ;
and in 1788 the first colony arrived there from England. In

220 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. [1839.

1789, after the mutiny of the crew of the Bounty, Captain
Bligh ran for a considerable distance along the north-eastern
coast, and made some valuable observations. From 1791 to
1793, a series of discoveries on the northern coast were made
Dy Edwards, Bligh, Portlock, Bampton, and Alt. In 1798,
Flinders and Bass sailed round Van Diemen's Land, and
made extensive surveys of the Australian coast, mostly in
open boats. Grant, in the following year, explored that por-
tion of the southern coast which bears his name. During
the five ensuing years, Flinders was actively engaged in pros-
ecuting his surveys and examinations along the eastern and
southern coasts and the gulf of Carpentaria, till, unfortu-
nately coming into collision with Baudin, the commander of
the French expedition employed on the same coast and Van
Diemen's Land, he was forcibly taken to the island of Mau-
ritius and detained there for six years. His discoveries in re-
gard to the coast outlines, and general geographical features
of the new continent, were of great value, and were made
use of by the French authorities without acknowledgment.
Since his time, Captain King, and other officers of the British
navy, have succeeded in exploring the whole northern coast.

In its coast outline, particularly on the south and west,
Australia is iron-bound, and almost unbroken. It has numer-
ous large and small harbors and inlets, on the eastern and
northern shores ; Port Phillip on the south, and Van Diemen's
gulf on the west, are spacious harbors ; Hervey's bay on the
east, and Shark's bay on the west, are from forty to fifty
miles in width and depth ; but the only two great indenta-
tions are the Gulf of Carpentaria on the north, and Spencer's
Gulf on the south.

From Cape Leeuwin to Spencer's Gulf, a distance of over
thirteen hundred miles, the southern coast, generally, is low,
sandy and barren, with only here and there an occasional
eminence. The northern coast resembles the southern in this
respect; but on the east and west coasts, there are parallel
ridges or ranges of steep and precipitous mountains, extend-
ing northwardly from the southern extremity of the continent.

1839.] MOUNTAIN RANGES. 221

In regard to the interior but little was known for many years
after the establishment of colonies on the island, and there
is probably much yet to be learned. A most remarkable fea-
ture in the coast outline, observed by all the navigators who
examined it, was the absence of any outlets for large rivers ;
and the want of the facilities which they would have afforded,
long retarded, and has always obstructed, inland discovery.
In spite, however, of the numerous obstacles to the explo-
ration of the interior — sustained by a patience that was in-
exhaustible, and animated by a spirit of perseverance that
no danger or difficulty could intimidate — different parties
have penetrated into the country from different points, and
examined, for the most part satisfactorily, nearly one-fifth part
of the whole continent.

Near the southern coast, in the neighborhood of Portland
Bay, commences a dark and rugged mass of mountain land,
called the Australian Grampians, which runs due north as
far as latitude 36° 12 ' S., where a range of grassy hills, di-
verging to the north-east, connects it with the Warragongs,
or Australian Alps, whose lofty peaks, rising to the height of
fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, are covered
with eternal snow. The Warragongs are the highest moun-
tains in Australia, — the loftiest peak of the Grampians,
Mount William, being but four thousand five hundred feet
high, and that of the Liverpool range, from six to seven
thousand feet : they run in a north-easterly direction, from
the southern termination of the continent, near Cape Wilson,
as low as 35° 20' S. In latitude 36° S., a chain called the
Blue Mountains, which, in the early history of the colony,
was long deemed impassable, branches off from the Warra-
gongs, and following generally the direction of the eastern
coast, forms the watershed between the eastern and western
streams, and is finally lost in the more elevated Liverpool
range, on the thirty-second parallel of southern latitude.
Mount York, the highest peak of the Blue Mountains, is a
little less than thirty-three hundred feet high. The Liver-
pool range at first runs due east, for sixty or seventy miles ;

222 INTERIOR OF THE COUNTRY. [1839.

but it then inclines again to the north, and may be traced as
far as latitude 26° S.

At the western extremity of the continent, there are three
parallel mountain ranges, all running northerly across the
continent. The easternmost range is not continuous, but
consists of two detached parallel chains extending longitu-
dinally, near the 118th meridian, and separated from each
other by a broad plain : they are comparatively unimportant,
and in no case attain a greater elevation than one thousand
feet. The second, called the Darling range, rises at Cape
Chatham, and runs in a direct course to the northern coast,
opposite Dampier's Archipelago : these mountains are from
thirty to forty miles in width, and their highest altitude is
about two thousand feet. The western chain runs close to
the shore from Cape Leeuwin, and is called Koikyennuruff
by the natives; one of its peaks, Toolbrunup, is three thou-
sand feet high, and is supposed to be the loftiest in West
Australia.

In latitude 33° S., a series of irregular mountain spurs
or ranges branch off to the west, from the Blue mountains,
which soon divide into detached groups; and the interior of
the country, as far as has been explored, appears to be
studded with isolated hills and mountains. Some of these
are only of moderate elevation, but others are of great height.
The Canobolas, for example, one of the detached groups
branching off from the Blue mountains, are between four and
five thousand feet high.

It was for a long time supposed that the interior of tho
continent was one vast desert ; and this supposition was
strengthened by the fact, that the wind which blew from that
quarter was often as hot, dry, and scorching in its effects, as
the African Harmattan. But after the repeated attempts to
cross over the rugged and abrupt wall of mountains border-
ing upon the coast country, had at length proved successful,
and the remarkable parallelism of the different ranges was
made known, it was thought a broad expanse of table-land
lay spread out between them. This opinion had scarcely

1839.] GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 223

been entertained, when the continued discoveries which were
made, disclosed the existence of numerous rivers and streams,
whose courses seemed to tend towards some great internal
isea. All these ideas, however, are now known to be errone-
ous. Although, as remarked by Mr. Oxley, in the narrative
of his adventurous tour,* " the whole form, character, and
composition of this country, is so singular, that a conjecture
is hardly hazarded before it is overturned," — still, it seems
but reasonable to infer, that Australia, so far as it respects
the interior, is in an inchoate or imperfect state, or, in other
words, yet in process of formation. All the masses of moun-
tain land, and the detached peaks, between the great ranges
at either extremity of the continent, are separated by monot-
onous levels, or dead flats, singularly deficient in vegetation,
which wear every appearance of having been recently sub-
merged beneath the waters of the ocean.

Plutonic rocks are tolerably abundant in the principal
ranges, yet the interior, though exhibiting so much that is
anomalous in character, is apparently of Neptunian forma-
tion. The isolated peaks are composed of sandstone, and
the soil of the flats is loose and porous, and strongly impreg-
nated with salt. Small salt-lakes, or brine-pits, are very
common in the dead levels. These low grounds are subject
to inundations ; but they are by no means regular, and are
usually succeeded by long periods of drought. Box trees,
polygonum, reeds, kangaroo grass, and other marsh plants,
and trees and shrubs that delight in excessive moisture,
taking root in the soil formed of the debris washed down
from the high lands, spring up in the low wet places after
each overflow, live their brief life, and wither and die. Other
plants, to which the fertilizing slime and decomposing vegeta-
tion, though lacking humidity, afford sustenance enough,
now make their appearance; stately rows of yarra trees,
like files of soldiers, line the channels of the rivers, and the
bights are crowded with dense thickets of eucalypti; yet all
these are, in their turn, destroyed by the constant exposure

* Page 81.

224 THE UPLANDS. [1839.

o too much water. But remote from the streams and
■narshes, the country is, at all times and seasons, an arid
lesert — barren, dreary, and desolate.

The mountainous districts, on the contrary, are exceed-
ingly rich and picturesque. Deep and impassable galleys,
generally the beds of rivers, sometimes three thousand feet
.Jeep, — on either hand precipice rising above precipice, rocks
piled on rocks, Ossa upon Pelion, — intersect the ranges, and
probably form the avenues by which the waters confined in
lakes, in the elevated basins, originally escaped through their
rocky barriers to the ocean. Plains and valleys are scattered
everywhere amid the mountains, and grassy hills and undu-
lations, slopes and terraces, lie spread out on their flank's,
whose abundant fertility presents a strong contrast to the
barrenness of the low country. Golden glades interspersed
among the green holts, mark the progress of the settler ; and
the flocks and herds clambering up the mountain sides, indi-
cate the certain rewards of industry and enterprise.

In all ordinary seasons, the high-lying plains and valleys
are well-watered ; but it is a remarkable fact, that the streams,
which, when they leave the mountains, are rushing and im-
petuous torrents, at their embouchures are scarcely larger
than mere burns or brooks. Near the bases of the ranges,
they have high bergs, that protect the plains bordering upon
them from the extremes of drought and flood, and the banks
are being gradually extended by the process of formation con-
stantly going on ; but when the waters reach the low sandy
levels, they spread over the surface, forming in the marshes
dank pools, or tarns, which are connected together like the
links of a chain. Evaporation, under the vertical sun, soon
diminishes their volume ; the thirsty and porous soil drinks
up another large portion ; and the remainder, after divers
meanderings, at length reaches the ocean. This is especially
true of the rivers and streamlets of the interior, whose systems
are not yet developed, nor their courses permanently estab-
lished.

If any reliance may be placed upon the appearances which

1839.] HARBORS. 225

indicate the recent origin of the continent, the theory, or ex-
planation, of its geological formation, may be this : — The moun-
tain ranges and peaks were originally islands, and the spaces
or intervals between them have been filled up by the wash of
their streams. This process may now be witnessed in the
flats of the interior; and, if we may so speak, we must wait
for the complete development of the country, until these are
covered to a still greater depth, by the decayed vegetable mat-
ter, and the deposits of the mountain torrents — and until the
latter, as rivers, have established for themselves permanent
channels. There is, indeed, much to be done. While Ba-
thurst plains, lying on the west of the Blue mountains, are
nearly two thousand feet above the level of the sea, the coun-
try sinks so rapidly as you advance to the westward, that, at
a distance of eighty miles, the altitude is only six hundred
feet. Ages may elapse, therefore, before the work will be ac-
complished ; but Nature is never idle in her laboratory, and
the designs of the Great Architect must, sooner or later, be
fulfilled.

(2.) From what has been said in regard to the coast outline
of Australia, it will readily be inferred, that there are few
large harbors. It would, perhaps, be improper to place among
these the Gulf of Carpentaria and Spencer's Gulf, since ves-
sels are as liable to disasters within their headlands as upon the
ocean itself, and sometimes even more so. Hervey's Bay on
the eastern coast, and Shark's Bay on the western, are ca-
pacious natural harbors, being from forty to fifty miles in
width and length, and have deep soundings. Van Diemen's
Gulf, also on the western coast, and Port Phillip on the south,
may likewise be ranked among those of the largest class. En-
counter Bay, at the mouth of Murray river, King George's
Sound, Western Port, and Corner Inlet, are likewise good har-
bors on the southern coast. But the harbors on the north and
east are by far the most numerous. On the former coast are
Exmouth Gulf, King's Sound, Brunswick Bay, Admiralty
Gulf, Cambridge Gulf, Rattle's Bay, and Port Essington. On
the east are Twofold Bay, Jervis Bay, Botany Bay, and Port

10*

226 PORT JACKSON. [1S39.

Jackson. The last is, in a commercial point of view, of much
greater importance than any of the other harbors that have
been mentioned. This magnificent bay, or inlet, is of irreg-
ular form, and stretches about fifteen miles into the country.
It is completely land-locked, and protected from every wind.
The anchorage is excellent, its soundings being more than
sufficient for the largest ships; and the whole British navy
could safely ride within it. Its shores are indented by nu-
merous small bays and coves, which also afford shelter from
the wind, and have, in many cases, good anchoring grounds.
Two gigantic cliffs, not quite two miles apart, and from two
hundred and fifty to three hundred feet high, rise on either
side of the main entrance ; upon the most southerly of which
is a lighthouse, whose lantern is elevated sixty-seven feet
above the ground, and consequently, near three hundred and
fifty feet above the sea. The bay is navigable for ships of
any burden seven miles above Sydney.

Besides these more important harbors, there are a great
number of smaller inlets, and estuaries at the mouths of the
rivers, which are easy of access, safe and spacious, and may
one day become serviceable.

Owing to the vicinage of the great dividing ranges to the
eastern and western coasts, large rivers cannot accumulate;
but as they mostly run through parallel valleys, the streams
which are found at these two extremities of the continent,
have longer courses than might be supposed. The rivers on
the western coast are neither numerous, nor important ; al-
though burns of excellent water, many of which issue to the
sea by noble estuaries, are abundant. The chief streams are
the Swan and Canning rivers, which unite in Melville water,
near the parallel of 32° southern latitude. The most import-
ant rivers that rise in the Blue mountains, on the east, are
the Murroo, Clyde, Shoalhaven, Hawkesbury, Hunter, Has-
tings, and Brisbane, which have their out lets between the
parallels of 27" and 36° S. The Boyne, a rapid mountain
stream, falls into Port Curtis, in latitude 23° 56' 30" S., and
the Pumice-stone into Moreton Bay, in 26° f>4'30". Endeav-

1S39.] rivers. 227

oc river, celebrate.il as the place where Captain Cook repaired
his ship after it had lain for twenty-eight hours on a coral
reef, is in latitude 15° 27' 12" S. : it has a wide month, easy
of entrance, but, at a short distance inland, will not float the
smallest boat. The Brisbane is undoubtedly the largest' river
on the eastern coast. The Shoalhaven and Hawkesbury
have fine large bays at their mouths, but like all the other
rivers mentioned, their currents are so tortuous that they pos-
sess few facilities for internal navigation. The Hawkesbury
carries off much the greater share of the rain that falls on the
eastern face of the Blue mountains ; its two most important
tributaries, the Grose and Cox, issue directly from this range,
through ravinesinthe sand-stone rocks,* of from one to thirty-
four hundred feet in depth ; and the Nepean, the only other
principal affluent, runs along the base of the same chain from
fifty to sixty miles. The current of this stream is laggard,
not usually exceeding two miles per hour, and it is subject to
inundations. Its banks are near thirty feet high ; but the
water, in a freshet, sometimes rises as high as ninety feet,
and spreads over a great extent of country. The floods occur
as often, upon an average, as once in three years, frequently
in the midst of harvest, when houses and barns, crops and
herds, are suddenly swept to destruction by the rushing
waters.

The Paramatta river, which enters Port Jackson, is but a
small stream, and is navigable for steamers, only, sixteen
miles above Sydney, where the tide ceases to flow.

Between longitude 124° 5o' E. and the 135th meridian, on
the northern coast, are the Prince Regent, Roe, Hunter, Al-
ligator, and Liverpool rivers. The first three flow between
rocky and precipitous hills, from three to four hundred feet
high ; and the others wind their way lazily through muddy
flats, and sandy and monotonous levels. All are full and
wide streams, and enter the ocean by vast estuaries, in which

* It is computed that a mass of rock equal to 134 cubic miles, musf have been
displaced by the Cox, and nearly the same quantity by the Grose, m opening
their way to the ocean.

228 THE MURRAY. [1839.

the tide often rises to the height of thirty feet ; but the lar-
gest of them, the Prince Regent, is not navigable for boats
more than fifty miles from its mouth, including all its tortu-
osities. On the southern coast are the Blackwood, which
falls into Flinder's Bay near the lloth meridian, and the
Kalgan, or French river, about one hundred and fifty miles
further east, which debouches into Oyster Harbor, the north
part of King George's Sound. About sixteen miles east of
Cape Northumberland, is the mouth of the Glenelg, one of
the largest coast rivers in Australia : its source is in the
Grampians, seventy miles from the sea ; it has numerous af-
fluents, and, counting its windings, is upwards of one hun-
dred and thirty miles in length ; it presents a narrow outlet
to the sea, the entrance of which is choked up by sand-bars,
but it soon expands, and, with this exception, is a wide *nd
deep stream throughout its whole course.

There is no other river of importance on the southern
coast, except the Murray, which rises in the Warragongs,
and empties into Encounter Bay, in longitude 139° E At
its mouth it appears to be an insignificant stream, but, in
fact, it includes within its basin an area of more than four
hundred thousand square miles, and carries off the surplus
waters of a great number of the rivers of the interior, whose
systems, as has been before remarked, are yet undeveloped.
Its principal tributaries are the Macquarrie, Lachlan, Mor-
rumbidgee, and Darling. The first two are formed by the
torrents descending the western face of the Blue mountains,
and, in their progress to the interior, diverge, near the 149th
meridian, — the Lachlan stretching to the north-west, and the
Macquarrie pursuing a more northerly course. Both are
large rivers, — the Macquarrie being sometimes capable of
floating a ship of the line, within one hundred miles of its
source. The Lachlan is more than twelve hundred miles in
length, and the Macquarrie from seven to eight hundred.
The Morrumbidgee rises in the Warragongs, and after run-
ning a tortuous westerly course, for not less than one thou-
sand miles, joins the Murray in latitude 34° 45' S. and Ion-

1839.] lakes. 229

gitude 143° 23' E., having previously received the waters of
the Lachlan. The Darling is a most singular stream ; its
waters being in some places brackish, then becoming sweet,
and, still further below, again impregnated with salt : it is
formed by the Gwydir, Dumaresq, and Castlereagh, all large
streams, and other affluents of considerable size, whose
sources are north of the Liverpool range ; it describes, in its
course, a curved line, upwards of one thousand miles long,
inclosing all the country west of the Blue mountains ; and,
being joined by the Macquarrie, finally unites with the Mur-
ray near the 142d meridian, in latitude 34° 7' S.

After receiving the Darling, the Murray, which has al-
ready traversed over fifteen hundred miles from its remote
source in the Warragongs, continues on to Lake Alexan-
dria, which communicates by a narrow outlet with En-
counter Bay, — a further distance, inclusive of the numerous
windings, of fifteen hundred miles. Notwithstanding it has
so many tributary streams, this river loses so much of its
waters, like its affluents, by absorption and evaporation,
that it is neither wide enough nor deep enough to admit of
navigation ; and, in addition, its mouth is defended by a
double line of breakers, whose foam extends from one end of
the bay to the other.

Lakes are abundant in Australia, but no very large ones
have so far been discovered. Lake Alexandrina is the largest,
and is fifty miles long and forty wide ; yet, it is so shallow,
in many places, that it cannot float even a boat. In 1828,
there was a fine sheet of water, called Lake George, seven-
teen miles long and seven miles wide, in 35° 5' southern lati-
tude, and longitude 149° 15' E.; but, in 1836, its site was
a grassy plain. All the lakes of the interior are subject to
the same variation. They abound, however, along the
courses of the rivers. The waters of some are sweet, of
others brackish. None of them have any outlet: a very few
are entirely isolated ; but the most are reservoirs for the re-
ception of the surplus waters of the neighboring streams,
with which thev communicate.

230 SOIL AND MINERALS. [1S39.

(3.) Fertility is mainly confined to the higher parts of
rivers, and not, as in other countries, to their lower valleys.
The mountain plains and elevated terraces, and the sides
and summits of the hills, near the great ranges, are covered
with a highly productive, dry, vegetahle soil. The desolate
levels of the interior are either composed of a red tenacious
clay, or of a dark hazel-colored loam, rotten and full of holes.
In the coast country the soil is a hlack mould, mixed with a
clean white sand. The latter is so plentiful that it affects
the vegetation in dry weather, and large quantities of it are
imported from Sydney to England, for the manufacture of
glass.

The connected ranges are mainly composed of granite,
with a thick overlying stratum of ferruginous sandstone. In
the Blue mountains the former is rarely seen, except in the
valleys and beds of streams, when it has cracked the upper
stratum. Limestone is not often met with in Australia : it
has been found in a district west of the Blue mountains, and
in some other parts of the continent, but in no case presents
any conclusive appearance of stratification. Trap occurs
quite often, though its location, with reference to that of
other rocks, cannot be assigned. Vesicular lava is abundant
in the neighborhood of Mount Napier, an extinct volcano
lying between the Grampians and the southern coast, called
by the natives, Murcoa.* In a low range called Wingen, a
little south of the Liverpool range, there is a bituminous
burning hill, composed of a great variety of rocks: this con-
tains, in close proximity, clay, shale, argillaceous sandstone,
feldspar, basalt, ironstone, trap, and hornblende, while the
adjacent peaks are chiefly porphyritic.

From what has been said, it will be perceived, that, al-
though all the usual formations are found in this remarkable
country, they occur without order, and in defiance of the es-
tablished laws of geology. It is not safe, therefore, amid so
many anomalies, to affirm, that the mountainous strata are
not metalliHerous ; yet the indications strongly warrant tho

* This is the only volcano which has so fur been discovered in Australia.

1839.] climate. 231

presumption, that they are destitute of the more precious
metals. Copper has been found in the Blue mountains and
the Darling range ; and traces of lead, occasionally mixed
with tilver and. arsenic, have been observed in the same local-
ities. Alum and plumbago are likewise tolerably plentiful.
Of gems, only rock crystals, topazes, garnets, and agates,
have yet been met with. But iron and. coal, — the former,
in many respects, the most valuable of metals, and the latter
the most useful of fossils, — exist in profuse abundance. Iron
is spread over the whole continent, and the oxide is so abund-
ant on the northern coast, that several of the mountains vio-
lently affect the magnetic needle. Coal-fields of immenso
extent lie beneath the barren sandstone, and. in the Blue
mountains and the Darling range, which occur in nearly
horizontal strata, and are rarely more than eighteen fathoms
below the surface.

Not far from one-third of the Australian continent is in the
torrid zone. The climate of the southern, or extra-tropical
portion, is said to assimilate very closely to that of the lower
half of the Italian peninsula ; but the average heat is less,
and the extremes of temperature greater. The atmosphere,
also, is considerably more arid, and the thermometer falls
with much greater rapidity as you ascend the mountains.
The mean temperature of the year is rather above 65° at
Sydney, about 63° at Paramatta, 67i° at Perth, and 60£° at
King George's Sound. The seasons are distinctly marked.
The mean heat during the summer months, (December, Jan-
uary, and February,) is about 80° at noon, on the southern
coast ; but this is tempered by the sea breeze, which blows
freshly, from nine o'clock in the morning till about sunset.
During the three autumn montliSj (March, April, and May,)
the thermometer ranges from 55° at midnight to 75° at noon.
In the coast districts, during the winter months, (June, July,
and August,) the mean temperature at daylight is from 40°
to 50°, and at noon from 55° to 60°. Frost occurs here but
rarely, and though snow sometimes falls, it never lies upon
the ground ; yet the mornings and evenings are chilly, and

232 TROPICAL AUSTRALIA. [1839.

the nights comparatively cold. Further inland, the cold is
more excessive ; hoar frosts are frequent and severe ; heavy
falls of snow are common, and the upper flats and downs
often remain covered for several days. In the spring months,
(September, October, and November,) the thermometer varies
from 60° to 70°.

But there is little to relieve the aridity of the climate in
the interior, where the heat is insupportable, alike in seasons
of flood as in those of drought ; and there is nothing pecu-
liar in the climatic phenomena of this desert region, unless
it be, that when the coast country is inundated with rain, it
is invariably the season of dry weather here, — and that the
converse is also true. On the coast, May is the wet season ;
but in the interior, the rains fall between September and
February.

Tropical Australia is by no means so well known as the
southern portion of the continent ; but sufficient facts have
been ascertained to render it quite certain, that its climate
does not differ essentially from that of other parts of the world
similarly situated. Running water is scarce, and a large share
of the country is burned up with the intense heat. On the
northern coast, the temperature is sometimes suddenly raised
by the scorching winds from the interior. These hot fiery
blasts are, fortunately, not of frequent occurrence. The av-
erage temperature at Melville Island is 83° ; the extreme av-
erage being 75° in July, and 87° in December. The coolest
part of the day is about six o'clock in the morning. The
Indian monsoons are irregular in their recurrence, often vary-
ing more than a month. The north-western, or summer mon-
soon, usually sets in early in November; and the south-east-
ern about the first of April. During the prevalence of the
summer monsoon, there are heavy falls of rain, yet these sel-
dom continue above two or three hours at a time, and rarely
interrupt out-door labor. From June to September, there is
no rain, but this is the healthiest part of the year. While
the dry monsoon prevails, the atmosphere is exceedingly
moist ; so much so, that iron artieles are with difficulty kept

1839.] WET AND DRY SEASONS. 233

from rusting; and the exposed surfaces of the rocks along the
coast are coated over with the oxide of iron.

Periods, or cycles, often or twelve years duration, distinctly
mark the division of the Australian climate into wet and
dry. In the course of each cycle, there is ordinarily one year
of unmitigated drought, during which no rain falls, whose ef-
fects are visible, as well in the mountains and fells of the ele-
vated regions, as in the boggy marshes and desert flats of the
interior — as well in the sandy plains along the southern coast,
as in the jungles of tropical Australia. This dry season is
followed by a year of freshets and floods : the rains are then
incessant, but they diminish in number and quantity, in each
succeeding year, until the dry epoch again recurs. It is only
in the years intervening between these two extremes, that
the regular transitions from one season to another, before
hinted at, are observable.

Dews are abundant at all seasons, and especially so in the
.summer, and during the long droughts. Earthquakes are
not common except on the northern coast, where they are oc-
casionally felt, Hail storms often occur, and thunder and
Iisrhtninff are likewise frequent. Sometimes a brilliant dis-
play of the most vivid electricity may be witnessed for a suc-
cession of days, — flash following close upon flash, with but
brief intermissions, and unaccompanied by either thunder or
rain. In the sandy districts a singular phenomenon is often
witnessed. Tall columns of dust, or whirlwinds, twenty feet
broad, and from seventy to one hundred feet high, may be
seen moving along in stately procession, striding majestically,
like giant spirits, over brook and plain, with the speed of a
race horse. At Sydney, these dust winds, or " brick-field-
ers," as they are called, are a great source of annoyance;
and though doors and windows are always carefully closed
when they are seen approaching, everything in the house
is sure to be covered with the thick, fine powder, which pene-
trates through the smallest crevice.

Were this not a country of singularities, the inference fairly
deducible from the facts which have been detailed, would be,

234 diseases. [1839.

that the climate of Australia was prejudicial to the human
constitution; but it is, in reality, highly favorable, for the
reason, probably, that as the vegetation is so scanty, the at-
mosphere is but little tainted by the miasma formed by its
decomposition. Deaths from disease are very rare ; and all
disorders, even the worst cases of syphilis, soon yield to the
simplest remedies. Endemic diseases are not at all common ;
and small-pox, measles, and hooping-cough, are almost un-
known. Dysentery is the most prevalent complaint. Chil-
dren suffer considerably from the presence of the teres, or
round worm. Ophthalmia is often produced at the south by
the hot dusty winds from the interior. It may be said to be
unhealthy within the tropics, but it is certainly less so than in
other countries lying in the same latitude. Typhus and acute
fevers prevail there during the wet monsoons ; and in the sea-
son of the variable winds, pectolapia, or moon-blindness, su-
persedes ophthalmia. Scurvy also appears to be endemic on
the northern coast, and manifests itself with peculiar viru-
lence where the tropical heat is exercised full upon the damp
soil. Bat even in these warm latitudes, though disease is far
from being a stranger, it generally puts on a mild form, and
is easily subdued.

(4.) Peculiar as are the geology and climate of Australia,
it might be expected that the vegetable creation would pre-
sent appearances equally wonderful. Nature seems here to
have escaped from her leading strings, and displayed the pow-
ers of a giant. Discarding the customary shapes in which
she appears in the old world, she develops herself in new and
unwonted forms. The humble grasses that, carpet our plains
and valleys, here collect in tall clumps and tussocks, as if too
proud to spread themselves over the earth, for man or beast
to tread upon with impunity: and the pretty honeysuckle
that shelters or conceals tin- prairie home of the American set-
tler, or twines its graceful tendrils around the porch of the
peasant's cottage in merry England, rears itself in stately
majesty among the other denizens of the Australian forests,
and disdains either to give protection, or to ask it in return.

1839.] BOTANY. 235

The fruits, too, are singular, as well in form as in their attri-
butes ; and what are simple shrubs in other climes, attain a
wondrous growth ; while the monarchy of the wood are Ti-
tans in stature, and of gigantic girth. But, what is stranger
still, all the trees, with a single exception, possess one of the
gifts of perpetual youth, and rejoice in a foliage that never
fades or perishes, but is always green.

Botany Bay, it will be remembered, received its name from
the abundant vegetation discovered on its shores, by Captain
Cook and Sir Joseph Banks. After their return, and the pub-
lication of their animated descriptions of the floral beauties
they had witnessed, general attention was instantly attracted
to the country, and the most extravagant expectations were
formed in regard to its productiveness. Those who subse-
quently visited it, for purposes of colonization, and from sci-
entific motives, saw much to charm and interest ; but a care-
ful examination disclosed comparatively little of what was
really useful and beneficial. The copses of palm, the jungle
patches and mangrove thickets, of tropical Australia, and the
wide reaches of scrub along the southern coast, a lfbrded a pic-
turesque and pleasing contrast to the dark waves of magni-
ficent vegetation creeping up the sides of the Blue Mountains
and the Warragongs, and mingling their rich emerald dyes
with the brilliant azure of the o'erarching heavens ; yet some-
thing more than mere beauty of scenery was requisite, as was
well remarked by Governor Phillip, in his account of the first
attempt at colonization, "in a place where the permanent
residence of multitudes was to be established."

There is a remarkable peculiarity in the arrangement of
the primary orders of plants in Australia. Of the crypto-
gamia, there are about seven hundred species, less than one-
third of which are common to this and other countries.
There are nearly twelve hundred monocotyledons, only fort)''
of which are found in other regions ; and out of almost four
thousand different species of dicotyledonous plants, there are
but twenty which are not peculiar to Australia. It will
thus be seen, that Australia contains, as peculiar to herself,

236 GRAINS AND FRUITS. [1S39.

not quite one-fifth part of all the species of plants in the
known world ; and if their utility only equalled their variety,
she would, indeed, be a paradise. But so far from this be-
ing the case, there is, in reality, a deficiency of native fruits
and vegetables, adapted for human food, without parallel on
the globe.

Of the cerealia there is not a single species indigenous to
the country; the only substitute for them being a kind of
reed, which the early settlers found to make very light and
palatable cakes. But since its colonization, every species of
grain — wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley and oats — has been
introduced into Australia, and is now cultivated with suc-
cess, though the crops are far more liable to fail here than
they are in more equable climates. The yield of wheat
ranges from ten to forty bushels per acre, — the greatest
quantity being obtained on the low grounds. The kernel is
large and plump, and the average weight of a bushel of the
best quality is sixty-two pounds.

Grasses of all kinds are abundant and highly nutritious;
but these, like the numerous ferns and nettles, and many
varieties of (lowers, have the form and habits of trees, and
grow in detached clumps, and not in a continuous sward.
The only native fruits are raspberries, currants, a species of
cherry, one or two tasteless fruits, and a nut deservedly
held in small estimation. The currants are much like cran-
berries in form and appearance ; but the Australian cherry is
a most singular monstrosity. It grows on a large bush ; the
fruit consisting of a spongy pulp, that shrinks a good deal
when fully ripe, on the outside of which, contrary to the
usual order of things, and firmly adhering to it, is the stone
or pit. Of the tasteless fruits, the wooden pear is one of the
most remarkable : it is the product of a low shrub, and, in
outward appearance, resembles the rich fruit of the same
name which we prize so highly ; but, within, it is as hard as
lignum vitas. When this plant was first discovered, it occa-
sioned the remark concerning Australia, that it was a strange

L839.] VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 237

country, indeed, since the leaves and fruit of its trees were
of wood, and the wood itself like stone.

Among the natural productions are flax, tares, indigo,
chicory, trefoil, and burnet, — the last a first-rate substitute
for tea ; and nearly all the useful fruits and vegetables of
other lands have now been acclimatized. Of the foreign
fruits, the orange, lemon, citron, date, pomegranate, almond,
filbert, nectarine, apricot, peach, plum, English cherry, fig,
mulberry, olive, quince, granadilla, banana, guava, pine-
apple, water and musk-melon, strawberry, grape, and chiri-
moya, are quite plentiful in the older and more thickly popu-
lated districts. Except in tropical Australia, the oranges,
citrons, and lemons, are not so large or luscious as in their
native climates ; the trees present a scraggy appearance, and
the velvety green of the foliage is changed into a pale sickly
yellow by the dry cutting winds. The stone fruits thrive
well, but they are not very rich in flavor. Peaches and apri-
cots are so abundant in New South Wales that hogs are fat-
tened on them ; and a quart of green gages, or a pound of
delicious grapes, is often sold, in the season, for an English
penny.

All the most valuable vegetables, — such as potatoes, car-
rots, turnips, beets, parsneps, pumpkins, squashes, cabbages,
broccoli, cauliflower, tomatoes, celery, lettuce, capsicum,
(Guinea pepper), asparagus, spinach, egg-plant, capers, arti-
chokes, radishes, and pulse, — are likewise very common in the
settlements.

Tobacco is a native production, but it is extremely liable
to be nipped by the frequent frosts. In other respects it suc-
ceeds admirably, and with good culture yields a profitable
crop.

Great attention, of late years, has been paid to the culti-
vation of the grape, for which the climate is decidedly favor-
able. Numerous varieties of foreign grapes have been intro-
duced, and liberal premiums have been offered by the Agri-
cultural Society of New South Wales, for the best specimens
of native wines.

238 TROPICAL PLANTS. [1839.

Attempts have been made in New South Wales, and other
districts in southern Australia, to cultivate the cotton plant,
but without much success. The soil and climate of the
Cobourg peninsula, on the north, and the tropical portion of
Australia generally, are well adapted, however, to its growth,
[ndeed, no other description of produce promises so well in
this section of the continent: if the seed is sown at the
proper season, the plants come forward rapidly, and arrive at
maturity just after the close of the rainy season, when the
long period of dry weather which ensues, affords ample time
and opportunity for gathering the crop without any liability
to be injured by moisture.

The coffee bush has been tried in northern Australia, but
the attempt to cultivate it proved a decided failure. This
plant delights in a volcanic soil, and will not flourish else-
where. Yet it is remarked, that the peculiar aspect of Aus-
tralian vegetation disappears, in some measure, in that portion
of the continent within the tropics ; the greater number of
those plants common to other countries are found here ; and
the trees and shrubs assimilate more nearly to those seen in
India. Chili pepper has been tried with success, and the
round pepper would, undoubtedly, thrive equally as well.
Spices, too, when planted under the shade, of the forest trees,
like the, nutmeg bush at Banda, grow vigorously, and bear
an abundant product. The sugar-cane, and almost all other
tropical productions, would, in like manner, thrive in the
lower latitudes of the north; and when this portion of the
country becomes more thickly settled than it now is, its hith-
erto untried capabilities will be shown fully to equal the ex-
pectations of those who may test them, if any reliance what-
soever may be. placed on the appearance of the soil, and the
character of the. climate.

One who is familiar with the forest scenery of Brazil will
not fail to be struck with the marked resemblance of the
Australian woods. Here, also, there is an almost entire
absence of underbrush, and the ivn-s are. rarely set so close
as to impede travelling, either on horseback or in a carriage ;

1839.J AUSTRALIAN FORESTS. 239

though, strangely enough, they are usually the most abund-
ant on inferior soils. Except in the tropical districts, how-
ever, there are few or no woody vines, or parasitic plants ;
but where they are found, their growth is most luxuriant.
Scandent pipers, wild bignonias and passion-flowers, and
vines whose foliage and blossoms are of various hues, are
trailed along the mangrove bushes, and cling to the tall
palms of northern Australia, whose fan-like branches seem
to incline downwards, as if rejoicing to lift them up into the
bright sunshine that smiles above them. Tree-ferns, of dif-
ferent varieties, are scattered all over the country ; and the
grass tree (xanthorrheea hastUis), presenting when in flower
a most gorgeous sight, is frequently seen. Flowering and
aromatic plants, of great beauty and powerful odor, are found
in abundance. On the sandy soils grow numerous prickly
shrubs, which bind them down, and prevent their drifting.
The lily, the tulip, and the honeysuckle exist here, but they
arc standard trees of enormous size, and incomparable beauty.
Of acacias there is no end, either in number or variety ; but
the palms are limited to the north and east of the continent.
Nearly all the timber is of the hard- wood kind. It is gen-
erally of greater specific gravity than water, but, is liable to
r »i at the heart, and is so contractile that it has been known
to shrink upwards of two inches within a week ; conse-
quently, its usefulness to the architect is very much im-
paired. Ail the varieties of eucalyptus and casuarina grow
here, together with different species of rose-wood, sandal-
wood, mountain ash, apple, sallow, turpentine wood, cedar,
and pine. Most of the eucalypti are called gum trees, —
there being the blue gum, gray gum, iron, flooded gum, and
black-batted gum ; but in some instances this is a misnomer ;
for the exudations of many of the trees are not properly
gums, but resins, and are insoluble in water. Some of them,
too, yield a fine and pure manna, and others the very best
gum Arabic. The foliage possesses powerful aromatic prop-
erties, and resembles that of the camphor tree in taste.
Boards and plank are made from these trees, and some of the

240 TREES. [1839.

varieties are used in fencing and ship-building. The pine is
equal to maple, and is used for cabinet work. The white
cedar (melia cozedarach) is the only deciduous tree yet
known: it attains a vast size, and is used for making shin-
gles and cabinet work. The she-oak, and swamp oak, are
applied to the same purposes, and the turpentine wood is made
use of in boat-building. There is another valuable tree,
called the miniosa, or black wattle, the bark of which is ex-
ported to England for tanning.

Of the medicinal trees, the peppermint, sassafras, and cas-
tor-oil tree, are the most conspicuous. The timber of the first
two is also held in considerable estimation. There is also a
tree called the tea-tree, the leaves of which are used instead
of those of the Chinese plant, and make a very potable bev-
erage.

An unusually large growth is characteristic of all the Aus-
tralian trees, except in the deserts of the interior, where
clumps of stunted bushes are sometimes seen, and the occa-
sional tracts in the coast country, which are covered with
dwarf shrubs, known among the colonists by the name of
"scrub."

A stranger, on entering an Australian forest for the first
time, is forcibly impressed with its grandeur and sublimity.
He seems to have crossed the hallowed precincts of some
Druid shrine, or entered the mighty portals of some ancient
temple — a relic of ages long since numbered with the past.
The huge bolls of the trees appear like pillars supporting the
fretted dome above, and each step along the dim aisles,

" Brown with o'erarching shades,"

conducts him nearer the high altar to which they lead. And
if, perchance, the babbling of the fountain, or the soft mur-
murs of the shaded rivulet, are heard in the distance, their
strains sound like choral symphonies, and the illusion is com-
plete.

Sometimes, also, feelings of melancholy are produced.
These are naturally inspired by the dark and sombre hue of

1839.] AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. 241

the foliage of the evergreens, aud the peculiar appearance of
the leaves of many of the gum trees. These are often seen, —
for Nature here is delighted with showing her perverseness, —
inverted in position, or set edgewise, the margin being di-
rected towards the stem, and the two surfaces resembling
each other.

In regard to the state of agriculture in Australia, but little
can be said. The extensive plains on the terraces of that part
of the country lying in the temperate zone, afford such excel-
lent facilities for pasturage, that the prejudice of the colonists
is strongly in favor of that branch of husbandry Among the
grains produced in this section, wheat predominates ; its cul-
tivation, like that of the other cerealia, is carried on much in
the same manner as in England. The Illawarra district,
south of Sydney, is especially famous for the large crops of
fine grain which it produces. In the tropical regions, but
little attention is paid to raising edible productions, as sago is
obtained in abundance from different species of palm, and
there are several varieties of arum, much used for food.

Agricultural and horticultural exhibitions are frequently
Held at Sydney, which exert a highly beneficial influence.
In all the large towns, a great deal of taste is displayed in
ornamental gardening. Bowers and trellises, loaded with
choice grapes, or flowering vines; elegant fuchsias, twenty
feet high ; geraniums, of such thrifty growth, that they are
twined into hedgerows ; passion-flowers concealing the entire
fronts of pretty little cottages; and American aloes, of pro-
digious size, attract the notice of the passer-by. In the coun-
try there are beautiful orchards and gardens, separated by
neat hawthorn hedges, and well stocked with fruits and veg-
etables. And even in the new settlements, you will often see
a cleared patch of ground, amid the stumps, surrounded by a
ring fence to keep out the cattle and pigs, abounding with
the choicest esculents and the freshest flowers, and

"With tulips, like the ruddy evening, streak'd."

(5.) If anomalies and peculiarities mark the botany of

11

242 birds. [1839-

Australia, the same is equally true of animal existence in
this singular region. There are three hundred and sixteen
different species of birds, but twenty-seven of which are
common to this and other countries ; yet there is no order of
birds without its representative, and there are only two, the
Australian species of which are wholly peculiar. Of the com-
mon species, the most numerous are the birds of prey, eagle-
haws, crows, shrikes, pies, and others of similar character.
The most remarkable of the rapacious birds is a white eagle,
which was at one time supposed to be an albino of some oth-
er species, or a hawk, but has since been proven to be a true
?agle. The usual singing birds are wanting. There is a bird,
called the superb warbler, having the habits of the redbreast,
and a number of variegated thrushes, which are very beau-
tiful, yet, notwithstanding their names, they are said to be
songless. The mountain pheasant, however, and the Austra-
lian magpie, are birds of song.

A species of thrush, called the thunder bird, has received
from the colonists the name of the "laughing jackass," from
s peculiarly shrill and discordant cry. Swallows, goatsuck-
s. crows, magpies, and larks, are quite numerous. The lark
< a poor imitation of the European bird, and the swallow is
inch smaller. Birds of paradise, and the various species of
ie epimachi, whose beautiful plumage has so often called
>rth the encomiums of the poet, are confined to the northern
art of Australia. The sacred kingfisher and the variegated
ee. eater are likewise famous for the brilliancy and beauty of
ieir covering. The parrots, parroquets, and cockatoos, are
minerous, and are peculiar to the country. Of the bustard
here are several species, two of which have been often mis-
taken for wild turkeys: the emu, or Australian cassowary,
>ngs to the same order. It resembles tho ostrich very
much in appearance, but its legs are thicker, and it is more
toutly built. It runs with great rapidity, and will outstrip
lie swiftest racer. It has small wings, which are nearly hid-
len beneath the thick tufts of feathers that lie above them,

1839.] WILD ANIMALS. 243

and its head is protected by a helmet consisting of a horny
substance disposed in plates or scales, one above another.

Curlews, blue plumaged herons, avosets, and rails, belong-
ing to the same order with the bustard and emu, are also
abundant. Ducks, petrols, albatrosses, penguins, and peli-
cans, are numerous ; and boobies are so plentiful that they
have given name to an island on the northern coast. Aus-
tralia can also boast of producing, in considerable numbers,
the black swan — neither brown or umber, but genuine coal
black — the rara avis in terris of the Snlmian bard.

Geese, turkeys, ducks, and fowls, were introduced by the
first colonists, over sixty years ago : and since that time they
have increased so rapidly that the country is liberally supplied
with them.

Of the mammalia, there are fifty-eight known species, only
twelve of which are found in other regions; and of these
twelve, five are whales and four are seals. Thus, there are,
in reality, but three terrestrial mammals common to Aus-
tralia and other countries ; one of which is the large, strong-
winged "Flying Fox," or "Great Bat" of Madagascar;
another is a rodent, a co-genera of the American and Asiatic
jerboas ; and the third is that well known cosmopolite — the
dog.* Thirty-three of the whole number of Australian mam-
malia belong to the order marsupialia, and of these more than
one half are limited to the continent and the adjacent islands.
The most prominent peculiarity of this order of animals is
the birth of the young in an immature state : at the time of
their birth, the fceti are destitute of limbs and other external
organs, and remain attached to the teats of the mother, which
enlarge so as to fill the mouth, inclosed in a pouch, or second
matrix, formed by the skin of the abdomen, that constitutes
the distinctive mark of the order ; and when fully developed,

* It is doubted by Mr. Ogilby, (Linnsean Transactions, vol. xviii., p. 121, et
seq.) whether the Australian dingo, or wild dog. is a native of the continent, and
he supposes it may have been carried there by the first primitive settlers. It was
certainly unknown in Van Diemen's Land, previous to the settlement of the
British colonists on the island.

244 THE MARSUPIALIA. [1839

they fall from the teats, and are for the first time ushered into
the world. But for a long time after this takes place, the
dam carries her young in her pouch, even when they can walk,
and on the approach of danger, they always conceal them-
selves in this secure retreat. When Australia was first dis-
covered, these animals were very numerous, but they arc now
fast disappearing.

First in importance, and the largest in size, of the animals
belonging to this order, is the kangaroo, which, in some of
the species, has the proportions of a large calf. Its head, neck,
and shoulders, are small, but it increases disproportionately to-
wards the hind quarters. Its fore legs are short, and are of
no service in walking, but are only used in burrowing in the
ground, or in conveying food to the mouth. The hind legs are
long and powerful, and are highly useful in locomotion, which
the animal effects by a succession of springs or leaps, some-
times jumping thirty feet at a single bound, in which it is
materially assisted by its strong prehensile tail. The color
is generally gray, varying in different shades, though there is
one species which is red and white. Except when feeding, or
lying down, its attitude is erect; squatting on its hams and
tail, like a South Sea islander. Its habits are herbiverous
and gregarious, and it is exceedingly shy and timid. Hunt-
ing the kangaroo, affords great amusement to the colonists.
Its flesh is edible, and is esteemed quite a luxury by the na-
tives.

Besides the kangaroo, there arc seven other genera of the
marsxynalia — the dasyuri, the phalangers, the petaurista, the
parameles, the phascolarctos, the phascolomys, and the potorvus
— the different species of which vary in size, from that of a rat
to that of a dog. The dasyuri found in Australia, resemble
the weasel tribe in size and appearance, though there are
larger species on Van Diemen's Land : all the species are
carnivorous. The phalangers are not all distinguished by
united toes, as the name implies: some of them approach
the quadrumana in the formation of their extremities; and
one of the latter class, the vulpine phalanger, is a pretty

1839.] ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 245

and graceful animal. This genera is insectivorous. The
petaurista are a sub-genus of the phalangers, and are some-
times called flying phalangers, from a kind of parachute,
formed by an extension of the skin of the side, which dis-
tinguishes them : the squirrel opossum [didclphis sciurus)
belongs to this genus, and has so much the appearance of a
squirrel that it is not easy to detect the difference ; it skips
from tree to tree in the same manner as the squirrel, and is
hunted on moonlight nights, like the American opossum.
The parameles are commonly called pouched badgers, from
their resemblance in form and habits to the common badger :
unlike the other genera their tails are very weak. Of the
phascolarctos, or koala, as it is generally termed, there is but
one species ; which has a clumsy body, like that of a moder-
ate sized dog, with short legs armed with claws, adapted for
climbing or burrowing : its motions are very slow, and on
this account is often called the New Holland sloth ; it pos-
sesses cutting teeth, but is destitute of canines ; the female
carries her young for some time, on her shoulders, and not
in her pouch, as is customary in this order. There is, also,
but one species of the phascolomys, which is called the wombat
by the colonists : it is a plantigrade animal, like the bear, a
true rodent, and in size approaches the badger. The wom-
bat lives in holes, and when roasted, its flesh is said to be as
delicate as that of a young pig. The potorvus, or wallaby,
likewise consists of but one species : it is the most diminu-
tive of the kangaroo family, and is sometimes called the kan-
garoo rat.

There are four species of the edentata : these are all tooth-
less, or so near it, that the term applied to them is not inap-
plicable. There are two genera of this order, the echidni,
or porcupines, and the ornithorhynchi, both of which are des-
titute of teats, and do not suckle their young. Of the por-
cupines there are two species : one is entirely covered with
closely serried spines, and the other has a coat of shaggy hair
which half conceals the spines. The ornithorhynchi are,
probably, the most singular animals found in Australia.

246 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. [1839.

There are two species of the genera, — the ornithorhynchus
paradoxus, and the ornithorhynchus fuscus : they have the
body and habits of a mole, the feet and bill of a duck, and
the internal formation of a reptile, though they are not cold
blooded ; they lead a burrowing life, in the mud of rivers
and swamps, and are so extremely shy, that their mode of re-
production has not yet been discovered.

The rodentia consist of two species of hydromys, called
muskrats, uniting the peculiarities of the dormouse, common
rat, and beaver ; a rat {coniluras constructor), bearing a
general resemblance to the rabbit, and remarkable for the
formidable defences of earth which it constructs against the
dingo and birds of prey ; two peculiar species of mice ; a red
shrew mouse ; and the Australian jerboa.

When the first colonists went out from England, in the
spring of 1787, they took with them one stallion, three brood
mares, three colts, forty-nine hogs, twenty-five pigs, two bulls,
five cows, twenty-nine sheep, nineteen goats, and five rabbits.
The last two have not thriven remarkably well, but the
other species of stock have increased with great rapidity.
During the first twenty- five years, frequent importations
were made, and in 1797, through the exertions of Captain
M { Arthur, a number of fine wooled sheep were imported from
the Cape of Good Hope, the original breed of which had
been brought from Holland, in order to improve the coarse-
wooled varieties then in the country. So favorable is the
climate of Australia to the domestic animals, and such abund-
ant pasturage is afforded them on the unlimited plains and
terraces among the mountains, that they thrive unusually
well. The ratio of increase of horses has been about eleven
per cent, yearly : in 1817 there were not far from three thou-
sand, and there are now over forty thousand. The horned
cattle have multiplied so fast, that many of them have
escaped from the distant stations ; and there are now large
herds in the interior, numbering from eight to fifteen hun-
dred, in a completely wild state. In 1821, there were about
120,000 sheep in the country, and in 1838, the number was

1839.] REPTILES AND FISH. 247

computed at 5,000,000. The average annual increase is no
far from forty per cent. The wool obtained is of the bes.
quality; the finer varieties being equal to the best Spanish
and averaging two and a half pounds to each animal. Shoe
are apt to stray, as well as the horned cattle, though the
are kept in flocks, and watched by shepherds, either nativ
or convicts ; but they do not return to a wild state, as the
are soon cut off by the ferocious dingo, or native dog.

Reptiles are abundant. There are twenty-three know
genera, twenty-one of which are peculiar to this countn
There are two or three varieties of turtles, and about t.h
same number of alligators. Lizards and snakes are nume
ous, and some of them are exceedingly venomous. The Ian
lizards, or guanas, and the crimson-sided snake, are of e\
traordinary beauty, but their bite is deadly. The black, th
diamond, and the whip snake, and the deaf adder, are als
poisonous ; and as it is not easy to distinguish them whe
curled up amid the tufts of grass, it is sometimes dangerou
to frequent the places where they abound, on foot. Sand-
leeches, or blood-suckers, are quite common, and are mucii
dreaded on account of their bite, as the wound always ulcer-
ates, and is very painful.

The bays and inlets along the Australian coast, and th<
adjacent islands, are favorite places of resort for cetaceou>
animals ; and the whale fishery is annually increasing in im-
portance. All the surrounding waters and the rivers aboun
in fish. The largest of the edible varieties is said to be th
river perch, or rock, specimens of which have been taken in
the Murray and Morrumbidgee rivers, weighing from one
hundred to one hundred and twenty pounds. Besides thi-
species, there are barracoota, native salmon, flat-head, trum-
peter, crawfish, rock oysters, muscles, and cockles, all in greu;
plenty. Sharks, of different varieties, are numerous along
the shores, and are frequently found a great distance up the
riv-rs. The smallest of the species is called Watts' shark.
and is remarkable for having the mouth near the extremity

248 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. [1839

of the head, and not underneath, as is the case with the
other varieties.

Insects are also found in considerable numbers, yet they do
not differ essentially from those found in other countries simi-
larly situated. Flies, spiders, cockroaches, chintz, and mas-
quitoes, abound. Of ants, there are many varieties, and of
different colors and sizes. Some of them are as large as
wasps, and have visible stings ; and nearly all the kinds are
said to be poisonous.

(6.) Mr. Crawfurd insists that the East insular negro is a
distinct, and decidedly inferior variety of the human race ;*
and so far as the native Australian is concerned, his many
peculiarities afford strong reasons for separating him from
the African Ethiop, whom he resembles more nearly than
any other species. He is by nature stupid, and puny and
weak in person. Both in his physical character, and in his
moral and intellectual attainments, he bears the impress of
inferiority. His average stature barely exceeds five feet.
He has a higher forehead, and a thicker skull than the Afri-
can negro, and his nose is not so much depressed ; but his
jaws advance still more boldly, and his buttocks are consid-
erably lower. His chest and shoulders are slenderly built,
yet the abdomen is quite prominent. The muscles are nut
very powerfully developed, though he is remarkable for his
agility.

The complexion of the aborigines is chocolate colored, or
a tint between the sooty black of the African, and the clear
olive of the Malay. Their lips are not unusually thick, and
their teeth are white and even. Their eyes are small, black,
and deep set. Their hair is long and black, generally straight,
but sometimes slightly curled : it is commonly cropped short,
but almost always matted and filthy, though without grease,
and free from vermin. The beards of the males are thick
and bushy, but are not suffered to grow long. They be-
smear their bodies with fat or oil, when it can be procured,

* History of the Indian Archipelago, Vol. I. p. 21.

1839.] CHARACTER. 249

and red ochre, black paint, or soot. Sometimes, also, they
scarify their breasts and shoulders, which gives them an ex-
tremely unpleasant appearance. Their voices sound like the
cackling of geese ; and they jabber away so rapidly, and in
such a confused lurry, that it is almost impossible to distin-
guish words, or articulations, so as to comprehend their
meaning. They have various dialects among them, which
differ from any other language in the world, though approx-
imating the most nearly to that of the Indians of South
America.

In regard to character, they are said to be treacherous and
deceitful, though naturally proud and independent. They
are timid, and silent and reserved in disposition. Being al-
most entirely ignorant of the distinction between meum and
tuum, they are consequently arrant thieves. Of agriculture,
or arts, or manufactures, except the construction of rude huts,
and a few arms and implements, they are utterly ignorant.
Placed by their Creator in an inhospitable climate, and on an
unfriendly soil, they seem to have no desire to better their con-
dition. To care they are strangers, and their wants are but
few. If the necessities of to-day are supplied, they are con-
tent, and leave to-morrow to take care of itself. Since the
settlement of the country by the English colonists, great pains
have been taken to ameliorate their situation ; missionaries
have been sent among them, and other means liberally em-
ployed, but the results have not been very flattering. Some
of their habits have been changed, and, perhaps, they are not
as ferocious and murderously inclined as they once were ; yet
their minds do not seem to be susceptible of improvement ;
and no excitement can remove the natural sluggishness of
their temperaments, and the inertness of their faculties. Lat-
terly, too, they have contracted many o? the pernicious hab-
its and appetites of the whites, and have become much ad-
dicted to the use of intoxicating drinks. It is not strange,
therefore, that they are dwindling away as a people ; for, like
the North American Indian, it seems to be their destiny, to

11*

250 HUTS AND WEAPONS. 1839.]

give place to the fairer, and more highly gifted races, who
are gradually supplanting them.*

(7.) The native huts are of the simplest and rudest charac-
ter, consisting merely of a few pieces of bark, inclined against
a pole laid horizontally across a couple of forked sticks, which
are driven into the ground. They sleep on dried herbs or grass,
and cover themselves with kangaroo skins. In the warmer
'.atitudes, it is not often that they construct a hut, or provide
any protection against the weather. Originally, they went
entirely naked, but since their intercourse with the Europe-
ans, many of them clothe themselves with kangaroo skins,
and wear caps made of the bark of trees. Those in the im-
nediate vicinity of the settlements array their persons in the
last-off" clothing of the whites.

Considerable skill is displayed in the construction of their
implements and weapons. They make hooks, and spears, the
latter usually three pronged, for fishing; and they have, also,
stone hatchets. Their weapons consist of a spear, or javelin,
ten feet long, made of cane or other wood ; a club, called
nulla-nulla, made of ti wood, and about three feet in length ;
the dundumel, or tomahawk ; thebundi ; and the boomercng.
They have likewise shields, made of the thick bark of the
eucalypti, which, though small, with their agility and quick-
ness of eye, are sufficient to protect the whole body against
the missiles of an enemy. Their spears are slender, and ta-
per gradually to the barbed point : they are thrown with the
wammera, a straight Hat stick, three feet long, with a socket
of bone or hide at the extremity, in which the heel of the
spear is placed. The wammera is firmly grasped by three
fingers of the right hand, and the spear steadied between the
forefinger and the thumb, till the thrower is prepared to hurl
it. Such is their dexterity in the use of this weapon, that a
native is a dangerous neighbor, particularly if he cherishes

* The number of native inhabitants of Australia was computed, at the time
of its discovery, to be about 200,000; but it is now rated at (JO 000, and this is
supposed to be an over estimate. It is certain, however, that the aboriginal popu-
lation is diminishing.

1839.] canoes. 25

any enmity . he will crawl through the tall grass like
American savage, and his aim is deadly, and his spear stril.
far.

The boomereng is the most singular offensive impleme
in use among the Australians. It is made of tough and ha
wood, about three feet long, two inches wide, and three qu^
tors of an inch thick. It is curved or crooked at the centr
so as to form an obtuse angle, and sharpened at the en I:
When hurled by a skilful hand, it rises with a rotatory motio,